This chapter is an edited version of a manuscript by the same title written by Edward W. Chester. In addition to editing, some material has been deleted from and some added to the original manuscript by the editors of this publication. Portions of the original manuscript were condensed from Guide to the Vascular Plants of Tennessee, compiled and edited by the Tennessee Flora Committee. Copyright © 2015 by The University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville. Used by permission granted to Edward W. Chester. See author’s notes for additional information.
Introduction
Tennessee is named for the former Cherokee town of Tanase (or Tanasi) in present-day Monroe County and for the river of the same name. Tennessee has 95 counties and borders eight other states, which ties Missouri for the highest number. Extending from the Mississippi River on the west to the Blue Ridge Mountains on the east, the state is 440 miles long and 120 miles wide.
The total area is 26,443,500 acres, or about 42,146 square miles, making it the nation’s thirty-sixth largest state. Of that area, 926 square miles are covered by water. The lowest elevation of 178 feet above mean sea level (AMSL) is near Memphis (Shelby County), while Clingman’s Dome in Sevier County (at 6,643 feet AMSL) is the highest. The major rivers are the Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland.
This chapter describes the vegetation and plant communities of Tennessee and explores how they are related to the geography and physical environment of the state. It includes an overview of vegetation, climate, rivers, soils, topography, and even some history to help better understand how plant life is connected to so many other elements of the state’s natural environment. This information will provide a good foundation for grasping the information on soil, water, and plant management in later chapters.
Overview of Tennessee Flora
A flora is defined as a compilation of known plants in a specific area. The Tennessee flora has been studied for more than 300 years. Even with this long investment, our understanding of all the species and their distribution and relationships within the state is still incomplete. Even in areas where botanical field work has been extensive, some species have been overlooked or not yet described, and some regions remain to be thoroughly explored. In addition, the state’s flora is ever changing, with new native and nonnative elements moving into the state along many migratory pathways. The potential impact of climatic changes is still unknown.
Human impacts (known as anthropogenic factors) have influenced the state’s flora and will continue to do so, in some cases leading to habitat destruction and extirpation (the disappearance of a species from an area). In other cases, new habitats and migratory routes are opened.
Important human factors include alterations of rivers and streams, urban sprawl, pollution, farming, mining, timbering, collection of plants for medicinal and nursery sales, and the introduction of nonnative organisms that attack or displace native populations. Such exotic pests may be plant pathogens (such as chestnut blight and Dutch elm disease), insects (such as the hemlock woolly adelgid and emerald ash borer), other invasive animals (such as wild boar), and numerous invasive plant species (such as Chinese privet and Amur honeysuckle). As a result of these and other factors not listed or not known, the state’s flora is constantly changing in number and distribution.
Characteristics of the Tennessee Flora
Based on current data, 2,878 species of vascular flora live in Tennessee, and 470 of these are woody (trees, shrubs, and woody vines). About 16% (447) of the flora are nonnative species that have been accidentally or deliberately introduced and are now well established (naturalized), reproducing and dispersing without intentional human assistance.
Some of the nonnatives (often referred to as exotics) have become invasive to the detriment of native species and plant communities. The Tennessee Exotic Pest Plant Council maintains categorized and ranked lists of invasive nonnatives at its website. Many nonnative species have been documented a few times in the state but are not known to be widely naturalized. These casual introductions are not included as part of the state’s flora, but their presence is noted on a watch list. Naturalized and watch list categories are regularly revised when new information becomes available.
Twenty-two of Tennessee’s plant taxa (a general term for taxonomic groups, such as order, family, genus, or species) are federally listed as endangered, threatened, or candidates for listing, and more than 500 additional taxa are listed at the state level as elements of conservation concern. The official state list was developed by the Natural Heritage Program of the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation (TDEC) with advice from a committee of botanists. The official state list also identifies federally listed species.
Ten species are known to occur only within Tennessee and are therefore termed endemic. Most of our endemics are found in the Central Basin, the Cumberland Plateau, or in the Unaka Mountains, areas that will be defined later in this chapter. Thirty-three previously known species have not been documented for at least 20 years and are listed as extirpated. This is a constantly changing list, as taxa are added and field work verifies the presence of taxa previously listed as extirpated.
Naturalized and watch list taxa, state and federally listed elements, endemics, and extirpated species are identified in the Guide to Tennessee Vascular Plants and the University of Tennessee Herbarium website. This website is continually updated and provides several thousand color images, a map showing the known county distributions, and other valuable information. The USDA Plants Database website is also a valuable resource. For those interested in using native plants in landscaping, Gardening with the Native Plants of Tennessee: The Spirit of Place, by M. Hunter, is recommended (University of Tennessee Press).
Vegetation of Tennessee
The vegetation of an area is usually defined as the flora with the addition of information on community structure and relationships. This chapter uses the common names of plants for simplicity. A list of the scientific names of plants referred to in this chapter may be found on page 2-31. The use of scientific names is quite important in botanical and horticultural fields for clarity and precision. (see Chapter 3.) Forest communities are used primarily to define the vegetation of an area, and the following discussion adheres to that pattern.
Tennessee forests are composed mostly of plants with flowers and fruits that bear seeds (angiosperms). Most of them are deciduous and occur across the state. In contrast, plants that bear seeds in or on cones and do not have flowers or fruits (gymnosperms) are mostly evergreen and usually occur in areas such as
- wetlands dominated by bald cypress
- shallow limestone soils with red cedar
- exposed upland slopes with various species of pines
- mesic coves, ravines, and along streams with hemlock
- at higher elevations in the Unaka Mountains with red spruce and Fraser fir.
Some nonforested areas dominated by nonwoody plants occur throughout the state, both on rock outcrops and shallow soils where hot and dry extremes occur, and on deeper soils without environmental extremes.
Tennessee Climate
The climate of Tennessee is generally temperate with warm summers and mild winters. However, the elongated geography of the state and its variation in elevation are key reasons that the state has a wide range of climatic conditions.
Temperatures and Length of Growing Season
Tennessee climate varies with latitude and altitude. USDA hardiness zones in the state range from 6a to 7b or even to 8a in urban southern areas.
• Memphis has an annual mean temperature (AMT) of 62°F (40°F in January and 83°F in July) with a growing season of about 235 days.
• Nashville has an AMT of 59°F (36°F in January and 79°F in July) with a growing season of 225 days.
• Knoxville has an AMT of 60°F (41°F in January and 78°F in July) with a growing season of 220 days.
The AMT drops considerably in mountainous areas, with growing seasons as low as 130 days (as determined by data from the UT climate data site). The average dates of the last spring freeze range from late March in the Memphis area to early May in the Unakas. Average dates of the first fall freeze range from early October in the Unakas to early November in the Memphis area. Prolonged periods (several days) of freezing weather are rare except in the mountains. Soils rarely freeze to a depth of more than a few inches and then remain frozen for only a few days.
Precipitation
Most precipitation occurs as rain in winter and early spring. March is usually the wettest month, and September and October are the driest. The principal source of atmospheric moisture is the Gulf of Mexico, so precipitation is generally higher in southern areas.
Annual precipitation in West Tennessee ranges from 46 to 54 inches, increasing from the Mississippi River Valley to the West Tennessee Uplands. In Middle Tennessee, the Central Basin averages 45 inches and the Highland Rim about 50 inches per year. The Cumberland Plateau averages 50 to 55 inches, while the Valley and Ridge province averages 40 inches in the north to over 50 inches in the south. The highest peaks of the Unaka Mountains average about 80 inches.
Average annual snowfall varies from a few inches in the west (5 inches in Memphis), to 10 inches in Nashville, up to several feet in the Cumberlands and Unakas. However, snow cover rarely lasts for more than a few days except at higher elevations where the ground may be covered for several weeks or even months.
Storms
Severe thunderstorms with lightning, hail, heavy precipitation, and damaging winds are common, mostly in spring through early autumn. Tornados causing significant property and forest damage as well as human injuries are much more common in West and Middle Tennessee than East Tennessee. Remnants of Gulf Coast hurricanes regularly track the Mississippi and lower Tennessee River Valleys, resulting in flooding and wind damage. Deep snow and ice storms are not common, but they can cause severe forest damage when they do occur.
Microclimates
Since much of the Tennessee topography consists of hills and mountains, with subsequent ridges, valleys, and varied slopes, local climatic conditions (microclimates) are an important aspect of the physical environment. General statements about temperature, precipitation, and growing season are important, but the flora (and fauna) of an area must be examined in relation to existing microclimates. The possibilities for research on Tennessee’s living natural resources and microclimates are essentially endless.
Vegetative Features
It is common to classify ecosystems based on plant species, which can encompass trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. These groupings are commonly designated by the major tree species, but these should not be assumed to be the only species present. As described in the text, many associates (Table 1) occur with these dominant species. There are several vegetative communities in Tennessee, as shown in Figure 5. In West and Middle Tennessee, the oak–hickory type forests cover much of the land area, while in East Tennessee, mixed mesophytic forests and Appalachian oak forests often predominate. It is clear from Figure 5 that waterways, elevation, soil characteristics, and many other elements of physiography have an impact on vegetative features. Certainly much more can be stated about vegetation characteristics, but the purpose of this chapter is to provide an introduction and overview.
Grand Divisions of Tennessee
The physiography (physical geography) of Tennessee is central to how we refer to parts of the state even if we rarely use that term. The three Grand Divisions of Tennessee —West, Middle, and East — are recognized in the state constitution and in state law, and they are represented on the state flag by three prominent stars.
An area with similar terrain, rock types, geology, and history is referred to as a physiographic province. These often large provinces are usually divided into sections and subsections. Another common method of dividing area is by ecoregions, areas having similar soils, vegetation, climate, geology, and physiography. In this chapter, Tennessee’s five physiographic provinces with sections and subsections are the main area descriptor, but ecoregions are also noted. Ecoregion designations have been developed more recently than physiographic provinces. They focus on similarities in ecosystems and environmental resources. So, essentially, the same area can be described using either of these systems — physiographic provinces (with sections and subsections) or ecoregions. This additional descriptor has been included for your information and to aid in future research.
The following discussion approaches the Grand Divisions of the state from west to east, noting the generalized physiographic regions of the state: provinces, sections, and subsections as well as ecoregions and physical characteristics. Figure 3 shows a broader view, illustrating how the physiographic provinces observed in Tennessee relate to those of neighboring states.
Common Terms Used to Describe Ecology and Soils in Tennessee Physiography
- Alluvium- Sand, silt, clay, organic matter, and other materials moved and deposited by water. Because topsoil is often eroded and moved by water, alluvial areas can be fertile and productive if not frequently flooded.
- Bottomland- Low-lying land that is associated with a river or stream. Such areas commonly have alluvial soils and may be flooded.
- Chert- A sedimentary rock, some also commonly call flint, which is derived from silica.
- Colluvium- Materials that have moved downslope, often by gravity or by mass movement when wet.
- Dolomite- A mineral made of calcium magnesium carbonate that is also used to describe sedimentary rocks containing dolomite.
- Dominant / Associate- Dominant species are more numerous than others in the area, while associates are species commonly found in lesser numbers with those dominant species.
- Fragipan- A dense subsoil layer that restricts the flow of water and root growth.
- Karst- A term used to describe a landscape that has limestone, dolomite, and other rocks that can be dissolved by water. Often there are caves, sinkholes, and underground drainage in areas with karst topography. This can have an impact on how the land is used and the soil-water relations of the area.
- Limestone- A sedimentary rock made of various forms of calcium carbonate.
- Loess- Deposits that are loosely compacted after being blown by wind. They are often primarily made of the mineral silt. (see Chapter 5.)
- Mesic, Xeric, Hydric- Mesic refers to areas with moderate or well-balanced supplies of soil moisture. Xeric refers to dry areas, while hydric refers to wet areas. Species composition varies with both climate and soil moisture regimes.
- Residuum- Soils that were formed at their current sites by weathering of underlying rock parent material.
- Shale- A fine-grained sedimentary rock that often has a high percentage of clay and silt minerals.
- Succession- The progress from one composition of species to another. Commonly used to refer to the transition in species composition over time after habitat disturbance.
- Upland- Land with higher elevation. Soils tend to be formed on site from underlying parent material or wind-blown materials rather than being moved by water or gravity.
Grand Division 1 : West Tennessee
West Tennessee extends from the Mississippi River on the west to the lower Tennessee River on the east. Historically, the region was known as the Western District and belonged to the Chickasaw Indians. An 1818 treaty granted title to the region, but not all county boundaries were established until the 1870s.
The landscape in West Tennessee does not contain large elevation differences and is similar to coastal regions to the south. In geological terms, the area is relatively young. Marine waters receded and left gravel, sand, and clay to form the current soils. The Obion, Forked Deer, Hatchie, Loosahatchie, and Wolf Rivers drain west into the Mississippi River, while the Big Sandy and several smaller streams drain east into the Tennessee River. Most people think of this area as cotton country, but diverse agricultural production of soybeans, corn, wheat, fruits, and vegetables also occurs. Except for small areas near the Tennessee River, all of West Tennessee is within the Coastal Plain province.
West Tennessee Physiographic Province: The Coastal Plain
The Coastal Plain Province begins just south of New England and extends around the coast into Texas. Within this large province, two sections occur in Tennessee.
Mississippi River Valley Section
General Description and Soil Characteristics
The Mississippi River Valley Section (the Northern Mississippi Alluvial Plain Ecoregion) is 14 miles wide and covers about 99 square miles with elevations ranging from 178 to 300 feet AMSL. Between the Mississippi river on the west and bluffs on the east, this section includes all of Lake, western Obion, portions of Dyer and Lauderdale, and a narrow strip of Tipton and Shelby counties. The landscape includes extensive agricultural fields, bayous, swamps, river terraces, oxbow lakes, meander scars, and natural and man-made dikes and levees. Reelfoot Lake, formed by earthquakes in 1811 to 1812, is the largest natural lake in Tennessee and a well-known natural landmark.
The entire area is within the floodplain of the Mississippi River and has deep soils composed of gravel, sand, silt, and clay (see Chapter 5) that were deposited by water. (see alluvium in Table 1). Soils vary from silty or loamy and well-drained on flat areas to clayey and poorly drained on the numerous wet areas. This is one of Tennessee’s most productive agricultural areas, one in which soybeans, cotton, corn, wheat, vegetables, and even sod is produced. Levees and dikes help to prevent flooding, but overflows, backwaters, and tributary flooding still occur.
Vegetation Characteristics
The vegetation in this section is classified as southern floodplain or bottomland hardwood, and location of species is related to the flooding of the area. Bottomland forested areas are ecologically important for storing floodwaters as well as recycling nutrients and preventing sediments and other wastes from reaching open rivers and streams. There are reports that the area included heavily timbered swamps in the mid-1800s, but only remnants exist today. In areas that are permanently or frequently flooded, bald cypress dominates or is codominant with water tupelo, and those species are associated with red maple, black willow, and green ash.
The meandering tributaries of the Mississippi River have broad valleys and some flooded depressions. Bald cypress, river birch, sweetgum, sycamore, black willow, overcup and cherrybark oaks dominate the wettest areas. In areas with less flooding and better drainage, green ash; swamp chestnut; white, cherrybark, and willow oaks; red maple; slippery elm; and shellbark hickory are common.
Across the landscape and flooding gradients, a range of oak species occur. Overcup oak–water hickory communities with green ash, sugarberry, red maple, swamp privet, and sweetgum are found in areas with prolonged
annual flooding. Wet but less flooded sites are dominated by swamp chestnut; swamp white, cherrybark, pin, water, and willow oaks; silver and red maples; green ash; box elder; sugarberry; and pecan. On the highest locations with only brief flooding, bottomland and moderate moisture species (see mesic in Table 1) such as white and cherrybark oaks, sugar maple, beech, tulip poplar, and basswood occur.
On point bars and natural levees along the Mississippi River, annual flooding results in shifting, sandy substrates dominated by successional forests composed mainly of cottonwood and black willow. With increasing land stability, the forests are characterized by forest communities such as pecan–sugarberry–slippery elm, green ash–American elm–sugarberry, and sycamore–green ash–sugarberry species. An understory of giant cane is common.
Herbaceous plants, studied mainly at Reelfoot Lake, include submerged, floating, and emergent species. (emergent species are those whose roots are submerged but the rest of the plant extends out of the water.)
Major submerged species are pondweed, coontail, and bladderworts. Floating species are American lotus, water-lily, yellow pond-lily, and water-shield. Emergent species forming dense stands include giant cut-grass, several species of smartweed, pickerelweed, lizard’s tail, water willow, mallows, and cattail. Shrub-dominated communities (those composed of buttonbush, swamp privet, and sandbar willow) are part of the transition from water to forest and exist as marshy patches in forest interiors. Stands of scouring rush also occur in many roadside ditches.
East Gulf Coastal Plain Section
Sometimes referred to as the Plateau Slope, the East Gulf Coastal Plain extends from the Mississippi River Valley to (or nearly to) the Tennessee River and has three subsections.
Mississippi River Bluffs Subsection
General Description and Soil Characteristics
(Bluff Hills is part of the Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion)
Covering about 850 square miles, the steep bluffs of the Mississippi River Bluffs Subsection form the eastern river valley border. The four most prominent bluffs are called the Chickasaw Bluffs and were named and numbered by early boatmen and fishermen. They stretch from north to south, with Bluff 1 being in Lauderdale County and Bluff 4 in Shelby County. The city of Memphis actually sits on Bluff 4 at one of the few places where the bluffs and the Mississippi River meet.
The bluffs stand about 100 feet above the valley and are covered with yellowish-brown windblown deposits (see loess in Table 1) that may be as much as 80 feet thick. Loess deposits are a parent material from which soils are formed with different characteristics from nearby alluvial soils. Erosion is commonplace on these bluffs, and extensive areas are covered with invasive kudzu.
Vegetation Characteristics
The bluffs and steep slopes are mesic environments and have vegetation unlike the nearby floodplains. Forests on the deep, well-drained loess soils and protected eroded sites of the bluffs are actually quite similar to forests of the Cumberland Plateau. An example is within the 4,000-acre Meeman-Shelby Forest Natural Area, where the bluff forests contain beech, tulip poplar, sweetgum, and various red and white oaks. There are many shrub and herbaceous species in distinctive combinations, including a high density of red buckeye and hop hornbeam.
West Tennessee Plain Subsection
General Description, Soil, and Vegetation Characteristics
(Loess Plains, part of the Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ecoregion)
The broad West Tennessee Plain Subsection, covering 4,100 square miles, extends east from the Mississippi River Bluffs to the headwaters of streams that drain west. Gently rolling plains about 250 to 500 feet in elevation are broken by meandering streams and rivers. Most soils are derived from gravel, silt, sand, and clay covered with loess at a depth varying from 30 to 80 feet near the bluffs down to 3 feet on the eastern edge. Drainage is generally good, but there are some restrictive subsoil layers that interfere with water movement. Erosion is noticeable in many areas. The rolling to level topography supports production of soybeans, corn, cotton, vegetables, tree fruits, and livestock.
West Tennessee Uplands Subsection
General Description and Soil Characteristics
(Southeastern Plains and Hills, part of the Southeastern Plains Ecoregion)
The West Tennessee Uplands Subsection is about 12 miles wide in the north to about 40 miles wide at the southern end and covers about 4,300 square miles drained by the Tennessee River. Elevations are commonly around 500 feet, and the landscape is more dissected and rolling than that of the plains to the west. Soils may be loamy, silty, or clayey, and erosion is common. Most are well drained, but the best croplands are on the stream bottoms and terraces. Massive clay deposits, especially in Henry County, are mined and the clay used for making bricks, pottery, and ceramics. These deposits are also known worldwide for yielding fossils of plants now known to occur only in the tropics. Most tillable land is used for corn, soybeans, grain sorghums, vegetables, cotton, hay crops, or pasture.
Vegetation Characteristics
Upland forests have dominant white, southern red, chestnut, post, and black oaks with pignut and mockernut hickories on drier sites along with persimmon, blackgum, and slippery and winged elms. The driest, upper slopes with sandy soils (mostly in the south-central and southeastern parts of the province) may be dominated by shortleaf pine. Loblolly pine was widely planted as a soil conservation measure after World War II but has been extensively logged by the pulp industry since then. Sites with more moderate moisture on lower and northern slopes and in draws and ravines are dominated by white oak and beech with associated sweetgum and tulip poplar. Lower slopes and stream terraces also have American elm, shellbark hickory, and water, chinquapin, and Shumard oaks.
The Lower Tennessee River Valley
The floodplain of the lower Tennessee River, also known as the Western Valley, is sometimes considered a separate physiographic unit. Before dams impounded the river, floodplains could stretch to several miles wide. However, the 1944 building of the high dam at Gilbertsville, Kentucky, formed the Kentucky Reservoir and covered many bottomlands.
Grand Division 2 : Middle Tennessee
Middle Tennessee Physiographic Province: The Interior Low Plateau
This Middle Tennessee Province includes central Kentucky and Tennessee and smaller areas in Alabama, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. The Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers and some of their tributaries are the primary waterways and flow into the Ohio River.
Highland Rim Section
Covering about 12,600 square miles in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Alabama, the Highland Rim is basically a ridge that surrounds an eroded dome called the Central Basin. It contains three subsections.
Western Highland Rim Subsection
(Western Highland Rim and Western Pennyroyal Karst Ecoregions)
General Description and Soil Characteristics
The Western Highland Rim is a broad plateau tilted slightly from east to west that has dissected terrain and many stream valleys. Covering about 7,500 square miles, this subsection includes some counties adjacent to the Tennessee River as well as several Middle Tennessee counties. Elevations range from 400 to 1,000 feet, with the highest points being in Giles, Lawrence, and Wayne Counties. Western and southern portions are drained by the Duck, Buffalo, and Elk Rivers flowing into the Tennessee River. The northern portion is drained by the Cumberland River, which flows into the Ohio River.
The area has developed primarily on limestone with some gravel and shales. Iron-bearing ores led to a major iron mining and processing industry in the 1800s to early 1900s. In 1873 there were 11 furnaces “in blast,” and surrounding forests were decimated to produce charcoal required to melt the iron in the ore. Phosphate mining was also an important industry around Maury County during the first half of the twentieth century.
Soils on slopes were formed from limestone and have clayey subsoils with some chert. (see Table 1.) Hill soils were formed from thin loess and limestone, while creek and river bottoms are a rich, silty alluvial soil. Tillable lands are more common northward and devoted to soybeans, corn, tobacco, and some specialty crops as well as livestock and hay. Southward, timber is more common, and forests cover much of the area. (Wayne County is the most heavily forested county in the state.)
Vegetation Characteristics
Ridges and upper slopes include chestnut, post, scarlet, and blackjack oaks, often with pignut and mockernut hickories. On the driest ridges and slopes, Virginia and shortleaf pines may occur. (These forests are examples of oak–hickory and oak–hickory–pine forests; see Figure 4 and the “Vegetative Features” box on page 2-8.) On the more moist uplands, white oak shares dominance with northern red oak, beech, tulip poplar, and sugar maple. Lower slopes with moderate moisture are dominated by white, black, and southern red oaks, as well as pignut and shagbark hickories. On lower and protected sites, beech, northern red oak, tulip poplar, sugar maple, and black walnut are most common. Floodplains are dominated by sycamore, silver maple, sweetgum, box elder, and cottonwood, often with an understory of giant cane.
Eastern red cedar is common in abandoned fields that are allowed to regrow and is sometimes found with Virginia or shortleaf pines (or both). Cedar may also be prominent on limestone river bluffs, usually with chinquapin oak, blue and white ashes, and winged elm. In addition to these forest communities, open glades on shallow, calcium-rich soils and open forests dominated by stunted chinquapin oak and red cedar are found near the Tennessee River.
Pennyroyal Plain Subsection
(Western Pennyroyal Karst Ecoregion)
General Description and Soil Characteristics
Frequently referred to as the “Pennyrile,” the Pennyroyal Plain is mostly in Kentucky but extends into parts of Stewart, Montgomery, Robertson, Sumner, and Cheatham counties. The flat to rolling, mostly nonforested karst region (see Table 1) is often referred to as the Big Barrens. Early settlers referred to it as “barrens,” apparently because of the grass cover and large treeless areas. Such grasslands once covered thousands of acres and probably became established under dryer climates. They may have been maintained by the grazing and trampling of large animals and by periodic fires set by Native Americans.
Vegetation Characteristics
The Big Barren grasslands were and are dominated by native perennial grass species similar to those in midwestern prairies. On medium-moisture to dry sites, little bluestem, Indian grass, and big bluestem are the major species with some panic grasses. Switchgrass is more prevalent with big bluestem on more mesic sites, while the wettest (hydric) sites have eastern gama-grass and various rushes and sedges as their dominant species. With European settlement, most of the barrens were quickly converted into farmland that today produces soybeans, corn, wheat, and tobacco (especially the dark-fired type) and is the site of beef and dairy farms. Few grasslands exist today.
Swamp and wet forests were once common in Pennyroyal depressions and on poorly drained soils, but logging and draining for agriculture reduced them. Existing sites are dominated by oaks, including willow, overcup, cherrybark, pin, and several other oak species, along with red maple, sweetgum, cottonwood, and swamp cottonwood.
Eastern Highland Rim Subsection
(Eastern Highland Rim Ecoregion)
General Description and Soil Characteristics
The Eastern Highland Rim Subsection is the eastern continuation of the Western Rim, completing the circle around the Central Basin. Compared to the Western Rim, there is more level (tableland) terrain, but also more rugged terrain toward the edge of the Cumberland Plateau. Numerous narrow valleys, some with waterfalls, cut into the Eastern Rim. The transition region between the Eastern Rim and the Central Basin is rough and dissected because of stream erosion.
The Eastern Rim averages 25 miles across with a total area of about 2,500 square miles. Elevations generally range from 800 to 1,300 feet and average about 1,000 feet. Short Mountain (in Cannon County), an outlier of the Cumberland Plateau, is over 2,000 feet high. Water is drained primarily by the Cumberland, Caney Fork, Obey, Roaring, and Wolf Rivers in the north and by the headwaters of the Duck and Elk Rivers in the south.
Common underlying materials are limestone, chert, shale, and dolomite. (see Table 1.) An extensive karst region centered in Warren and White Counties has numerous caves and sinkholes. Soils were mostly formed from cherty limestone and are strongly acid and low in fertility. Lower slopes have shallow soils over shale rocks, while loess-derived soils are found on some ridges. Forests are extensive in most areas and timber is still important. Scattered barrens, many now converted to agricultural land, are especially common in Coffee, Cannon, and Warren Counties. Tillable lands support tobacco production (mostly of the burley type), pastures and livestock, and fields of small grains, corn, and soybeans. In addition, the Warren County area is home to a significant nursery industry.
Vegetation Characteristics
Upland areas of the Eastern Rim are primarily covered by oak forests. Divided or steeper landscapes include chestnut, southern red, scarlet, white, blackjack, and post oaks. More mesic flat to rolling lands and middle and lower hill slopes are dominated by white and black oaks with pignut, bitternut, and mockernut hickories, along with red maple and blackgum. North-facing and lower elevation slopes as well as more protected dissected areas are dominated by mesic forests of sugar maple, beech, tulip poplar, yellow buckeye, and white oak, often with northern red oak, red maple, blackgum, and hickories. Examples of mixed mesophytic forests (see Figure 4 and the “Vegetative Features” box on page 2-8) with beech, tulip poplar, sugar maple, white oak, black walnut, yellow buckeye, white basswood, and cucumber tree are on the most protected sites.
On steep limestone cliffs with thin soils that are mostly found along rivers, forests are dominated by red cedar and by chinquapin and Shumard oaks. Bottomland forests include silver maple, box elder, sweetgum, river birch, red maple, sycamore, and slippery elm. Swamp forests occur in depressions where there are high water tables, slowly drained soils, or yearly flooding. Wetland species found there include overcup, willow, water, and pin oaks as well as white oak and red maple. Disturbed area forests have a mixture of species that include hickories, white ash, red maple, and hackberry.
Central Basin Section
(Outer and Inner Nashville Basin Ecoregions)
The Central Basin extends almost to the Kentucky line on the north and slightly into Alabama on the south. Approximately 50 miles wide and 120 miles long, the basin covers about 5,500 square miles and resulted from erosion of the Nashville Dome, causing a depression carved out of solid limestone. Northern areas are drained by the Cumberland, Harpeth, Stones, and lower Caney Fork Rivers, and southern areas by the Duck and Elk Rivers. Most recognize an outer and inner basin as described and mapped by the late H.R. DeSelm in 1959.
Outer Basin Subsection
General Description, Soil, and Vegetation Characteristics
Steep hills and narrow valleys are common and average 750 feet in elevation, but some hills rise to 1,300 feet. Limestone, chert, and shale are
all common underlying rocks. Soils are mostly well drained but vary in depth. Many soils can be basic in these regions because they were formed from the underlying limestone rocks. Level upland soils are productive, especially for pasture, hay, and forests, with some row crops, including corn, soybeans, and burley tobacco.
Ridges and dry slopes are occupied by secondary oak–hickory forests with chestnut, white, southern red, northern red, black, and scarlet oaks, along with pignut and shagbark hickories. On north-facing slopes and other more moist sites, oaks and hickories are prominent but beech, tulip poplar, sugar and red maples, and white ash are also present. Terraces and bottomlands are characterized by sycamore, sweetgum, red maple, green ash, box elder, and willow oak.
Inner Basin Subsection
General Description and Soil Characteristics
The now very urban Inner Basin area is mostly rolling or flat with poor surface drainage, karst features, and much exposed limestone. Broad flat areas with sheets of limestone and shallow soil are referred to as cedar or limestone glades. Soil depths range from a few inches in cedar glades (often none on flat exposed limestone) to several feet near rivers.
Vegetation Characteristics
Forest vegetation is mostly cedar with hackberry; blue and white ashes; chinquapin, Shumard, white, and red oaks; and hickories. Disturbed sites now have sugar maple, white ash, and cedar as dominant species, with hackberry; sugarberry; slippery and winged elms; northern red, chinquapin, and Shumard oaks; shagbark hickory; Osage orange; and blackgum. Mesic sites include more sugar maple, beech, and tulip poplar. Along streams and in bottoms, silver maple, box elder, sycamore, red maple, and green ash are common.
Cedar glades are one of the unique vegetation features of Tennessee, and fortunately several are now state-owned and protected. Their importance has been documented by the lifetime work of Dr. Elsie Quarterman (1910–2014) of Vanderbilt University, followed by decades of work by her students, Drs. Jerry and Carol Baskin (University of Kentucky). The surface is often an open area of rock, gravel, and shallow soils less than 2 inches deep. Their studies show that glade microclimates select for herbaceous species that can survive long growing seasons, high light, extended drought, limited soil, and extreme soil and air temperatures.
Vegetation types in inhospitable glade environments is largely determined by soil depth (including soil accumulation in cracks of the rocks). Glades can be bare or they may be occupied by low-growing mosses, lichens, or herbaceous vegetation, or by scattered individuals and small stands of small eastern red cedar. Such glades are home to a number of endemic species, like the Tennessee coneflower and Tennessee milk vetch.
Exposed gravels are dominated by winter annuals. With more soil development, winter annuals are joined by perennials, and with increasing soil depth, perennial grasses begin to appear. Surrounding the glades and where the soils are deep enough to be occupied by trees, there are thickets of cedar or cedar-deciduous forests with redbud, winged elm, and post, chinquapin, and Shumard oaks as major associates.
Grand Division 3 : East Tennessee
The East Tennessee Grand Division extends from the western edge of the Eastern Highland Rim to the eastern state line. It is a region of great contrast that traverses the scenic Cumberland Plateau with its natural bridges, rockhouses (openings at the base of a cliff that resemble a cave), and breath-taking vistas, through the valleys and ridges of East Tennessee and finally to the mountains and coves of the Unakas. Parts of three physiographic provinces are included in this division.
East Tennessee Physiographic Province 1: The Appalachian Plateaus
Extending from New York to Alabama, The Appalachian Plateaus Province crosses Tennessee from north to south. It is a geologically old plateau with several sections that differ in underlying rock, degree of dissection, and impact of previous glaciers. Two sections occur in Tennessee, but neither were affected by glaciers.
Cumberland Plateau and Cumberland Mountains Section
(Containing four ecoregions)
Extending from the Eastern Highland Rim on the west to the Valley and Ridge Province on the east, the Cumberland Plateau and Cumberland Mountain Section is 70 miles wide at the northern end and 50 miles wide to the south. It covers 5,000 square miles in 22 counties. Much of the plateau tilts slightly to the west where water is drained to the Big South Fork, Wolf, Obey, and Caney Fork Rivers. The Obed and Emory Rivers provide drainage to the southeast.
General Description and Soil Characteristics
Numerous valleys, gorges, and ravines are found on the western border where the Plateau meets the Eastern Rim. The eastern edge is the striking Waldens Ridge cliff (an escarpment), which extends from Cumberland and Roane Counties to the Tennessee River gorge near the Tennessee–Georgia–Alabama line. Elevations of the Plateau average 2,000 feet with a high of 3,534 feet at Cross Mountain. Sandstone cliffs, steep slopes, and waterfalls, such as Fall Creek Falls in Van Buren County, are characteristic features. Sandstone rockhouses and natural bridges are distinctive features in the northern areas.
Much of the Plateau interior is poorly drained. It contains a number of natural ponds, swamps, and wet meadows as well as two major valleys. The Sequatchie Valley is more than 60 miles long and 4 to 5 miles wide with escarpments nearly 1,000 feet tall on each side. The smaller Elk Valley is to the north of the Sequatchie Valley, while to the northeast is Grassy Cove, a large karst depression.
Sandstone over shale is common, as are siltstones and clays with outcrops of limestone and shale in gorges plus sandstones on slopes. Coal beds are most prevalent northward and are a valuable resource, although surface mining has devastated the landscape in some sites and contributed to acid runoff and reduced water quality. Soils have largely formed from weathering of underlying sandstones and shales or from similar soils that have moved down slope (colluvial soils). Upland soils are shallow, acidic, and low in natural fertility, while alluvial material can contribute to a higher fertility in bottomlands and terraces.
Vegetation Characteristics
The plateau remains largely rural and forested, although logging is prevalent. Urban areas are scattered, and agricultural production is limited to small fields except in the valleys and some tablelands. Most farms are devoted to pasture, hay, small grains, vegetables, soybeans, and tobacco.
The classic work of Dr. Lucy Braun in the 1940s and 1950s classified the entire plateau as part of the Mixed Mesophytic Forest Region, but recent work shows that much of the plateau is dominated by mixed oak forests, including chestnut, post, black, scarlet, white, and blackjack oaks, often with Virginia, pitch, and shortleaf pines, red maple, blackgum, and
sourwood. Hickories (pignut, mockernut, and shagbark) are also present.
Riparian forests (along waterways) are dominated by red maple along with river birch, sycamore, and giant cane. Forests that have been repeatedly logged occur across the plateau and are dominated by red maple, commonly with blackgum, American holly, and white oak. In successional fields and on upper slopes that have been heavily logged or clear cut, Virginia and shortleaf pine communities are common.
Mixed mesophytic communities do occur but are limited to protected sites where beech, tulip poplar, northern red oak, sugar maple, basswood, white ash, buckeye, and shagbark hickory are common. Evergreen communities, chiefly on lower slopes of deep ravines and in coves, are dominated by hemlock and white pine with northern red and white oaks, tulip poplar, and sweet birch. Sparsely vegetated glades and barrens occur on sandstone outcrops and nearby thin soils, as well as sandbars of streams and riparian areas. These small, nonforested areas contain complex grassland, herb–shrub, herb–lichen, and small tree–woodland communities.
East Tennessee Physiographic Province 2: The Valley and Ridge
The Valley and Ridge Province is a narrow band 1,200 miles long running from New York to Alabama. In Tennessee, this province extends diagonally about 150 miles across the state from northeast to southwest, with the Cumberland Plateau on the west and the Unaka Mountains on the east. It covers about 9,000 square miles. It is drained almost exclusively by the Holston, French Broad, and Tennessee Rivers. In fact, the Tennessee River begins in this province with the confluence of the Holston and French Broad rivers near Knoxville.
General Description and Soil Characteristics
The general landscape is a rolling upland characterized by parallel ridges and valleys. Clinch and Powell Ridges and Bays Mountain (3,097 feet) are the most common ridges in the north where valleys average 1,000 feet. Southward, valleys average 750 feet in elevation, and the highest ridge is White Oak Mountain (1,495 feet) between Chattanooga and Cleveland.
Limestone, shale, siltstone, sandstone, chert, and marble are common bedrock materials. (The area is known for high-quality marble.) Springs and caves are numerous. Soils vary by underlying rock type and are generally shallower over shales and sandstones and deeper over limestone. Upland soils are often leached, acidic, low in fertility, and commonly used for lumber, pasture, and hay. Valley floors, stream bottoms, and terraces are more agriculturally productive and are used for production of row crops, vegetables, soybeans, and burley tobacco.
Vegetation Characteristics
Early descriptive systems classified the forests as oak–chestnut, but American chestnut losses prior to 1940 led to a more correct later Appalachian oak designation. (see Figure 4.) The province is currently 50% forested. White oak is dominant, accompanied by black, chestnut, northern red, scarlet, southern red, and post oaks; pignut, shagbark, and mockernut hickories; blackgum; and red maple. On drier sites, chestnut oak dominates, but white oak is still a major component. Exposed sites contain Virginia, shortleaf, and pitch pines.
In coves and protected northern and eastern slopes, mixed mesophytic forests including dominant beech, tulip poplar, and sugar maple with white and northern red oaks, yellow buckeye, magnolias, black walnut, and white basswood are common. Hemlock may be a component in deeper ravines, in draws, and along streams. Slowly drained soils of upland depressions include numerous oak species and typical wetland species such as sweetgum.
Bottomlands, terraces, and riparian areas along the Tennessee River were once widespread, but Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) impoundments inundated most of them. Existing riparian habitats are dominated by sycamore, river birch, green ash, and willow. Giant cane is common but few canebrakes remain.
Eastern red cedar is a prevalent species on abandoned farms and is an obvious tree along rights-of-way, fencerows, and in poorly managed pastures. Common associates are persimmon, red maple, sassafras, and tulip poplar. Glades and barrens occur on scattered dry sites where red cedar, along with little bluestem as the dominant perennial grass, usually occur with big bluestem and dropseed. Cedar–oak, cedar–pine, pine, and remnants of the largely extirpated white cedar forests occur on limestone and sandstone river bluffs. Scattered white pine communities dominate on more mesic sites, and plantations of white, shortleaf, and loblolly pines occur in the southern part of the province.
East Tennessee Physiographic Province 3: The Blue Ridge (Unaka Mountains)
The Appalachian Mountains are part of the extensive Appalachian Highland complex that extends from northern New England into the Southeast. They are remnants of a former, much greater highland area. Many of the mountains are less than half their original height. The Blue Ridge Province extends from Maryland to Georgia. In Tennessee, it includes mountains adjoining the Valley and Ridge Province. This western crest of the Blue Ridge is called the Unakas from a Cherokee word meaning “white, hazy, fog-draped.”
The Unakas, encompassing 2,600 square miles, extend across Tennessee and include the prominent Roan Highlands, Great Smoky, Chilhowee, and English Mountains, among others. Major rivers, including the Holston, French Broad, Pigeon, Little Tennessee, Hiwassee, Tellico, and Ocoee all eventually flow into the Tennessee River. The area is the home of the nation’s most-visited park (the Great Smoky Mountains National Park), covering nearly a half-million acres, as well as the Cherokee National Forest. The Tennessee portion of the Appalachian Trail crosses the state through the Unakas, and these mountains are known worldwide for their diverse flora and phytogeographical (plant geography) relationships with other regions of the world.
General Description and Soil Characteristics
In the Blue Ridge region, rugged terrain with steep and rocky slopes is traversed by clear, cool, rushing streams, and waterfalls abound. Fertile limestone valleys and coves encircled by mountains, including Cades, Tuckaleechee, and Wear, are some of the best-known landscapes. Elevations generally range from 1,000 feet in valleys and coves to more than 6,000 feet. Clingmans Dome, the highest point in Tennessee, reaches 6,643 feet, and nearby Roan Mountain is 6,286 feet.
A wide range of rock types are found in the province, and soils vary from those formed in place (residuum) to those formed from colluvium. (see Table 1.) Both of these soil types have a range of depth and stone percentages. Soils are generally acidic and well drained, with upper ridges and slopes having loamy and rocky soils approximately 1 to 3 feet deep. Deeper soils on slopes are often rocky but fertile and support high-quality woodlands. Limestone valleys and coves contain deep, productive soils and are often heavily populated if not in public ownership. Cultivated land is minimal when compared to other regions, but crops include livestock, pasture, hay, corn, truck crops, and burley tobacco.
Vegetation Characteristics
In addition to the rugged terrain that provides widely varying environmental conditions, elevation changes alter temperatures and precipitation in the Blue Ridge region. These diverse characteristics greatly affect the
composition of the forests. An early survey of the region reported that oaks comprised over 40% of the standing timber, while American chestnut accounted for 17%. Hemlock was the only other species, accounting for over 5%.
Foothills of 1,000 to 4,000 feet, including Chilhowee, English, and Iron Mountains, are the westernmost features. Chilhowee Mountain is a well-studied example of forests recovering from extensive logging (including clear cuts), cultivation on lower slopes, and fires. Major forest types are (1) chestnut oak–mixed oak, especially on northern and eastern slopes, (2) oak–pine with chestnut and white oaks and pitch and Virginia pines on south and southwest slopes, (3) Virginia pine–pitch pine on drier south and west slopes with scarlet or chestnut oak as associates, and (4) oak–hickory with chestnut and black oaks and pignut and mockernut hickories on lower north slopes. Other forest types include mesic sites in low-elevation coves, stream bottoms, and mountain benches dominated by tulip poplar; hemlock–white pine type restricted to deep ravines and the base of steep slopes; and a Table Mountain pine type in small areas near the crests of drier peaks.
The main chain of the Unakas lies east of the foothills. Based on studies in the Great Smoky Mountains, forests are generally described either as those on slopes from 1,000 to 4,200 feet in elevation or those above 4,200 feet. Below 4,200 feet, forests in sheltered coves, ravines, and on north-facing slopes are occupied by mixed mesophytic forests (also called cove hardwoods), which is the most species-rich of our deciduous forests. Major dominants are beech, white basswood, sugar maple, yellow buckeye, tulip poplar, silverbell, and hemlock. Common associates are white ash, northern red and white oaks, cucumber tree, black cherry, black walnut, bitternut and shagbark hickories, red maple, and (formerly) chestnut. Also in the canopy are magnolias (umbrella, bigleaf, and Fraser’s), yellowwood, and serviceberry, with magnolias plus mountain and striped maples in the subcanopy. The shrub and herbaceous layers of these forests have the highest species richness of Tennessee’s forests.
Eastern hemlock, the evergreen of the mixed mesophytic forests, occurs over a wide range of sites and elevations. At upper elevations, it is a dominant large tree on a number of sites. Moving downslope it
becomes more confined to coves and riparian habitats where its thick, evergreen canopy contributes to the coolness of mountain streams. Unfortunately, this species is being eliminated from the Unakas by the exotic hemlock woolly adelgid, an insect that could cause the extinction of the species throughout its range.
On drier and more exposed slopes are found complex oak forests with dominant northern red oak on mesic sites and near the altitude limit of the oaks. White oak is found at lower elevations on mesic and submesic sites, with chestnut oak on south- and west-facing leads and ridges. Important associates are black, southern red, scarlet, post, and blackjack oaks. On dry or disturbed sites, pines also may be associates. American chestnut was once important in these oak forests. At lower elevations, the driest and most exposed south- and southwest-facing ridges are more open oak–pine and pine forests. Virginia and shortleaf pines occur at lower elevations, replaced by pitch pine upslope, and then mixed with Table Mountain pine at the upper limit of pines. White pine becomes more important in the northeastern part of the province.
Above 4,200 feet elevation, communities are less diverse and more acclimated to shorter growing seasons, increased precipitation, and lower average temperatures. With increasing elevations there is more snow, persisting fog, strong winds, some ice, and extreme cold. Spruce, spruce-fir, and fir forests occupy the most area.
From about 4,200 to 4,900 feet, red spruce is the dominant species with a mixture of deciduous mesophytes such as yellow buckeye, sweet birch, beech, and northern red oak. With increasing elevation, red spruce and Fraser fir become codominants, and deciduous species of yellow birch, serviceberry, and mountain ash become fewer.
Above 6,200 feet, Fraser fir becomes the sole dominant species. However, the fir and spruce–fir forests have undergone drastic changes in the last 30 years due to fir death from exotic balsam woolly adelgid damage. Red spruce dieback, mortality, and reduced growth occurred with death of fir and increased exposure to ozone and other air pollutants. These conditions can be exacerbated by fog and wind, which carry the pollutants from lower elevations. Because of
these challenges, the current fir and spruce–fir ecosystems have virtually collapsed and decades (at least) will be needed for these systems to recover.
Beginning at about 4,200 feet and extending to 5,400 feet, with boulder fields of surface rocks, the Unaka’s equivalent of northern hardwood forests is found. These mostly deciduous forests are variously dominated by beech, yellow buckeye, yellow birch, white basswood, sugar maple, and black cherry, often with hemlock, striped and mountain maples, white ash, and red spruce. Beech extends upslope into the spruce–fir forests in “beech gaps” on south-facing concave areas between spruce-covered ridge crests.
Scattered at high elevations are small, nonforested sites called balds that are dominated by species of the heath family (Ericaceae) and grasses. Research indicates that most of these balds were probably created by post-settlement farmers for pasture. A typical heath bald has a “canopy” of Catawba rhododendron and mountain laurel with a subcanopy of sand myrtle and a ground cover of galax and trailing arbutus. These heath communities are on south-facing, convex ridge crests and can be seen developing on exposed slides and avalanche scars maintained by soil conditions and plant activities. Balds dominated by grasses, particularly mountain oat grass, are found on exposed, chiefly southwest-facing slopes. At the lowest elevations, bottomlands, valleys, and valley-like coves were originally forested but many have been cleared for agricultural use and urban areas.
Summary
Tennessee is a tremendously diverse state in terms of its history, culture, agriculture, physiography, and vegetation. This diversity is due in large part to the long east-to-west dimension of the state that covers physiographic regions from coastal-like on the west to the eastern high mountains. The three Grand Divisions reflect this diversity.
West Tennessee, the land of the Chickasaw, begins with the Mississippi River, extends across the alluvial plain with its extensive farms, and continues over the loess-covered Chickasaw Bluffs and eastward to the Tennessee River. This area forms the Coastal Plain with its slow-flowing, meandering streams, swamp forests, Reelfoot Lake, and broad agricultural fields. Cotton was once the major agricultural crop and is still important, although agriculture is now more diversified. Memphis is well known for its medical centers, historical attractions, and the unique culture, food, and music of the “Bluff City.”
Middle Tennessee, physiographically a broad rim surrounding an eroded basin, is the land of country music, walking horses, large military installations, dark-fired tobacco, botanical nurseries, a former iron mining and smelting industry, Civil War legacy, and major medical and educational centers. Part of the infamous Trail of Tears plus the northern end of the Natchez Trace (now a National Parkway), and Nashville, the state’s capital, are found here.
The Central Basin with its cedar glades and several endemic plants, the Pennyroyal Plain to the north with barrens and extensive grasslands (mostly historical), and barrens and karst areas to the southeast make Middle Tennessee unique. High and low dams resulting in impoundments of portions of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers and some of their tributaries provide electricity, flood control, transportation, and water-related recreation, mostly lacking prior to the 1940s.
East Tennessee, the land of the Cherokee, begins with the rugged and beautiful Cumberland Plateau, a land of rockhouses, natural bridges, waterfalls, the striking eastern escarpment, and tablelands with deep gorges and ravines. The Big South Fork National Recreation Area is a national treasure. This is the coal-mining region of the state, and the results have been environmentally devastating in some places.
In the Valley and Ridge Province, we find the origin of the “Tanase” (Tennessee) River, the University of Tennessee’s “Vol Nation,” and the metropolitan areas of Knoxville and Chattanooga. The rolling uplands, fertile valleys, and rivers provided ideal settlement areas for Native Americans and early Europeans, and they eventually became major battlegrounds during the Civil War. Impoundments of several rivers are significant landscape features today, as in the case of Middle Tennessee.
The Unaka Mountains extend across the state and provide beauty that almost defies description. High mountains, peaceful valleys with agricultural settings, Roan Mountain (especially when rhododendrons are in bloom), the Great Smokies, the Appalachian Trail, Clingmans Dome, and magnificent cove forests with carpets of wildflowers are features unlike any others in the state. The strong, resilient people, mountain churches, Appalachian music, and numerous other features provide a link to our state’s history.
So from Memphis to Mountain City, one can stand at almost any crossroads and appreciate the beauty and diversity of our state’s physiography and plant life. Certainly, centuries of impacts associated with a growing human presence have altered the landscape, but the majority of the state’s physiography is little changed since settlement. The plant life has suffered, and many of today’s plant communities have been severely altered. Yet the awe-inspiring spring and summer green of forest canopies and their understories of wildflowers, followed in fall by the diversity of colors and then the starkness of winter are still there to be observed.
Most important, the forests, barrens and prairie remnants, wetlands, and glades have the ability to respond favorably to protection and management, even after decades of misuse. This is testimony to their inherent resilience and their continuing, renewable nature. Their collective regrowth, reseeding, and renewal are attributes that point to a favorable future for Tennessee’s plant life. Still, our help is needed, indeed required, in stewarding our natural treasures. The slogan “Keep Tennessee Green” is certainly still appropriate today.
Common Names with Corresponding Latin Names
A
- American chestnut (Castanea dentata)
- American elm (Ulmus americana)
- American holly (Ilex opaca)
- American lotus (Nelumbo lutea)
B
- bald cypress (Taxodium distichum)
- basswood (Tilia spp.)
- beech (Fagus grandifolia)
- big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii)
- bigleaf magnolia (Magnolia macrophylla)
- bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis)
- black cherry (Prunus serotina)
- black oak (Quercus velutina)
- black walnut (Juglans nigra)
- black willow (Salix nigra)
- blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica)
- blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica)
- bladderworts (Utricularia spp.)
- blue ash (Fraxinus quadrangulata)
- box elder (Acer negundo)
- buckeye (Aesculus spp.)
- buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis)
C
- cane (Arundinaria gigantea)
- Catawba rhododendron (Rhododendron catawbiense)
- cattail (Typha latifolia)
- cedar (Juniperus virginiana)
- cherrybark oak (Quercus pagoda)
- chestnut oak (Quercus montana)
- chinquapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii)
- common broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus)
- coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum)
- cottonwood (Populus deltoides)
- cow oak (Quercus michauxii)
- cucumber tree (Magnolia acuminata)
D
- dropseed (Sporobolus spp.)
E
- eastern gama-grass (Tripsacum dactyloides)
- eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana)
- Elliott’s broomsedge (Andropogon gyrans)
F
- Fraser fir (Abies fraseri)
- Fraser’s magnolia (Magnolia fraseri)
G
- galax (Galax urceolata)
- giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea)
- giant cut-grass (Zizaniopsis miliacea)
- green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica)
H
- hackberry (Celtis occidentalis)
- hemlock (Tsuga canadensis)
- hop hornbeam (Ostrya virginiana)
I
- Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans)
K
- kudzu (Pueraria montana)
L
- little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium)
- lizard’s-tail (Saururus cernuus)
- loblolly pine (Pinus taeda)
M
- mallows (Hibiscus spp.)
- mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa)
- mountain ash (Sorbus americana)
- mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia)
- mountain maple (Acer spicatum)
- mountain oat grass (Danthonia compresa)
N
- northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis)
O
- Osage orange (Maclura pomifera)
- overcup oak (Quercus lyrata)
P
- panic grasses (Panicum spp.)
- pecan (Carya illinoinensis)
- persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)
- pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata)
- pignut hickory (Carya glabra)
- pin oak (Quercus palustris)
- pitch pine (Pinus rigida)
- pondweed (Potamogeton spp.)
- post oak (Quercus stellata)
R
- red buckeye (Aesculus pavia)
- red cedar (Juniperus virginiana)
- red maple (Acer rubrum)
- red spruce (Picea rubens)
- redbud (Cercis canadensis)
- river birch (Betula nigra)
- rushes (Juncus spp.)
S
- sassafras (Sassafras albidum)
- sand myrtle (Kalmia buxifolia)
- sandbar willow (Salix exigua)
- scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea)
- scouring rush (Equisetum hyemale)
- sedges (Carex spp.)
- serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.)
- shagbark (Carya ovata)
- shellbark hickory (Carya laciniosa)
- shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata)
- Shumard oak (Quercus shumardii)
- silver maple (Acer saccharinum)
- silverbell (Halesia carolina)
- slippery elm (Ulmus rubra)
- smartweed (Polygonum spp.)
- sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum)
- southern red oak (Quercus falcata)
- spruce (Picea rubens)
- striped maple (Acer pensylvanicum)
- sugar maple (Acer saccharum)
- sugarberry (Celtis laevigata)
- swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii)
- swamp cottonwood (Populus heterophylla)
- swamp privet (Forestiera acuminata)
- swamp white oak (Quercus bicolor)
- sweet birch (Betula lenta)
- sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua)
- switchgrass (Panicum virgatum)
- sycamore (Platanus occidentalis)
T
- Table Mountain pine (Pinus pungens)
- Tennessee coneflower (Echinacea tennesseensis)
- Tennessee milk vetch (Astragalus tennesseensis)
- trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens)
- tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera)
U
- umbrella magnolia (Magnolia tripetala)
V
- Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana)
W
- water hickory (Carya aquatica)
- water oak (Quercus nigra)
- water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica)
- water-lily (Nymphaea odorata)
- water-shield (Brasenia schreberi)
- water-willow (Justicia americana)
- white ash (Fraxinus americana)
- white basswood (Tilia americana)
- white oak (Quercus alba)
- white pine (Pinus strobus)
- willow (Salix nigra)
- willow oak (Quercus phellos)
- winged elm (Ulmus alata)
Y
- yellow buckeye (Aesculus flava)
- yellow pond-lily (Nuphar advena)
- yellowwood (Cladrastis kentukea)