Chapter 16- Wildlife Around the Residence

Authors:

Craig Harper, Professor and Extension Specialist, University of Tennessee
James L. Byford, Dean Emeritus, University of Tennessee
Carol Reese, Retired Extension Specialist, University of Tennessee

Introduction

Backyards are great places to observe and enjoy wildlife, but they also provide opportunities for wildlife to become a nuisance. These two aspects of wildlife must be recognized and balanced when landscaping around homes and gardens. An understanding of the needs of various wildlife species encountered around the home greatly influences human interactions with animals. Simply put, animals are attracted to areas that provide food, cover, or water in an area that is easily accessible without undue risk.
Habitat is the collection of resources (food, cover, and water) required by a particular wildlife species in an area that can support that species. Wildlife can be attracted to areas around the home by providing or enhancing resources that enhance its value as habitat. Wildlife can be deterred from those area by removing resources or by blocking access to resources. There is both an art and a science to providing resources in a way that attracts desirable wildlife species but does not encourage unwanted animals. This chapter highlights techniques for improving wildlife viewing around the home while managing or discouraging the presence and activities of unwanted wildlife.

Attracting Wildlife: Overview and Key Needs

Although many gardeners focus on ways to deal with destructive or nuisance wildlife, most wildlife species that appear around the home are beneficial — even delightful — and gardeners should welcome them into their “local landscapes.” A healthy and diverse population of desirable wildlife provides many benefits, such as aiding in pollination and providing entertainment and beauty. These animals can even help with pest control by providing a balance between predator and prey in the landscape. Often in the wild, if a particular creature becomes plentiful, other creatures take advantage of the bounty and consume them.
Furthermore, wildlife gardens can provide opportunities for learning. They can be used as outdoor classrooms for students or even for adults interested in learning more about the natural world. This aspect can be particularly important as more and more people in today’s world lose contact with nature.
To manage a backyard for wildlife, it is important to identify the needs of the desired species. Humans have a history of catering to particularly desirable or appealing wildlife, such as hummingbirds, bluebirds, and butterflies, although there are many others of interest. Regardless, it is necessary to identify those to be attracted. Next, evaluate the resources (types of food, cover, and water) already present, identify possible limiting factors for the desired wildlife, and then determine what resources need to be added.
It may be necessary to look beyond a single backyard to attract and influence some wildlife species because of their greater need for space within their habitat. In that case, adjoining properties should be considered. Forming a cooperative neighborhood backyard management plan is a great way to attract both a wide variety of species and increase the numbers of particular species present.

Diversity is the Spice of Backyard Wildlife

To attract a variety of wildlife species, or even just one or two species, and ensure that their needs are met throughout an annual cycle, it is necessary to have a variety of plant types and to create variable structure in the backyard landscape. Think first of borders of mixed shrubs and perennials, some open lawn or meadow, wooded areas, piles of rocks and brush, various water features, and even a bit of open soil. Include a range of plants that offer flowers and fruit during different seasons of the year. Also, consider a variety of deciduous and evergreen woody plants that provide different layers of cover, from low-growing plants to tall trees. By providing “a little of everything,” there is at least a little something for a wide variety of wildlife. If a particular species is the goal, research its needs and add those elements.
Those fortunate enough to be the steward of a large property or farm may strive to manage their land in a way that influences populations of wildlife beyond the level possible in a backyard. For proper guidance and help with creating a management plan forests and fields, it is best to consult a Certified Wildlife Biologist™. Begin with local or area wildlife biologists, such as the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency.

Cover

In attracting wildlife, providing a source of food is likely to be the first thought. No doubt, food attracts wildlife. However, cover holds wildlife.
It is tempting to spruce up a property by removing all brushy, brambly growth, yet it is these “weedy” areas that provide cover and make the overall area attractive to a wider variety of wildlife species, as illustrated in the photo on page 16-6. That being said, these are also the areas that can harbor some types of wildlife that many people do not care for, such as rodents and snakes. Where feasible, consider allowing these areas to remain ungroomed, recognizing that they also provide cover for species such as eastern cottontail, indigo bunting, and yellow-breasted chat. They are likely a place where a hen wild turkey might locate her nest. If these areas are deemed unsightly, consider planting an attractive border that can double as a screen and also provide cover for some other species. Remember that many plants can provide both food and cover, so preference should be given to those that do.
Cover represents many things to wildlife, such as protection from wind, cold, or shade during hot days, but its primary role is making wildlife feel more secure from predators. Many creatures prefer dense cover that might be described as a thicket. Indeed, some of the most interesting birds, such as the brown thrasher and eastern towhee, nest in this cover or even on the ground below.
Although a “thicket” may sound unsightly, it could comprise closely planted shrubbery or even brambles that can still fulfill orderly elements of the landscape design. Shrubby borders consisting of species such as flowering dogwood, crabapple, plum, fig, viburnums, and blueberries might be backed by taller overstory trees, such as oaks, hickories, blackgum, and maples, to create layers of varying heights. This layering will satisfy the needs of a variety of bird species that nest in different strata. Homeowners may then find themselves enjoying a variety of “new” birds and their songs.
Consider other types of diverse vegetation. Various forbs and grasses may already exist, providing outstanding cover and food sources along the edge of lawns and woods and in “odd” areas not mowed frequently. Forbs, such as oldfield aster, daisy fleabane, butterfly milkweed, pokeweed, ragweed, ironweed, Joe Pye weed, wild lettuce, beggarslice, and sticktights, along with grasses such as broomsedge, little bluestem, and purpletop can add a diversity of color and structure to attract a variety of wildlife, including pollinators.
One of the elements of a layered landscape is the lawn. Some people may not think a turfgrass lawn is wildlife friendly, but some species frequent lawns. Examples include American robins pulling worms from the ground or an eastern bluebird perched on a limb surveying the lawn for insects. Other birds that frequent lawns include eastern phoebes, dark-eyed juncos, and northern flickers, to name just a few.
A lawn continually sprayed with pesticides is not friendly to wildlife, so it is important to weigh competing goals in the home landscape. Ridding the lawn of insects and grubs in pursuit of perfect turf does not encourage wildlife, and ridding the lawn of plants traditionally considered weeds deprives both birds and insects of forage in the form of seeds and nectar. Both violets and dandelion are examples of plants that have wildlife value but are typically viewed negatively by many people. The homeowner or gardener must decide whether a perfect swath of monoculture green is the goal or whether it is more desirable to provide a green swatch peppered with beneficial plants that some deem weeds but that also attract wildlife species.
If the property has an abundance of open area, such as old fields adjacent to the backyard, it is desirable to allow part of the area to go through at least some degree of ecological succession, in which one plant community gradually is replaced by another through time. This process attracts different species of wildlife at different stages. It is advantageous to provide multiple stages of succession. Multiple vegetation types with variable structure attracts a diversity of wildlife. Plant succession is set back by disturbance every few years. The most common methods to set back plant succession are prescribed fire, disking, mowing, and application of selective herbicides.

Food

Food is an obvious requirement of all wildlife, and it comes in many different forms. Food is a powerful attractant, and careful consideration must be given to which species are to be attracted and how to manage this resource so as not to attract unwanted species or to attract undesirable numbers of some species. In general, providing food unnaturally through feeders is most often the cause of nuisance wildlife problems. Providing food naturally by growing plants is much less likely to lead to problems. Nonetheless, both can be appropriate in certain circumstances, and the benefits of enjoying proximity of birds or other wildlife may make the nuisance factor tolerable.
When selecting plants that will attract wildlife, choose those that provide multiple benefits during multiple seasons. For example, a plant may offer nectar during bloom, foliage for caterpillars in midseason, and fruit later for birds. Some wildlife will feed directly on the plants (eating buds, foliage, or flowers), whereas others will eat the fruit or seed or will feed on other creatures drawn to the plant. For example, some birds are primarily fruit eaters or seed eaters, but almost all use insects to feed their young. Caterpillars are especially valued.
Many insectivorous birds, such as bluebirds, woodpeckers, robins, and mockingbirds, switch to dried fruits by necessity when insects are scarce during the winter. Choose some plants that can sustain wildlife through the winter months. Of note are sumacs, hawthorns, viburnums, American holly, waxmyrtle, eastern redcedar, and hackberry, to name a few.
It would be hard to overestimate the importance of oaks and acorns for a variety of wildlife. Acorns are consumed by deer, squirrels, raccoons, opossums, foxes, black bear, and many species of birds, notably wild turkeys, blue jays, and wood ducks. Many insects feed on oak foliage, including many of the Lepidoptera larvae (butterflies and moths), which in turn serve as food for birds, amphibians, and reptiles.
Relatively large oak trees, especially those with cavities, provide not only food but also places to hide, perch, roost, den, and nest. Even after death, these trees provide a critical source of cover and food for numerous species of wildlife. Standing dead trees, sometimes called snags, are excavated by woodpeckers to feed on the insects that inhabit the decomposing wood and to provide nesting cavities that later are used by many other species. At least 85 North American bird species use cavities created by woodpeckers and by wood decay, including bluebirds, tree swallows, chickadees, owls, wrens, and wood ducks. Flying squirrels, bats, raccoons, gray foxes, honeybees, and even black bears also may occupy these cavities.
The open area around snags gives a clear view for predator species, so they are frequently used by raptors, such as hawks, owls, and eagles, as well as insectivores, such as bluebirds and flycatchers.
Once a dead tree has fallen, it still provides food and cover for a host of invertebrates and the many creatures that come to consume those invertebrates. As it fully breaks down, the log becomes rich humus — fertile soil for new plants. Obviously, a dead tree may be unsightly or present a danger if allowed to stand, but if it can be left, it provides significant benefit to a diversity of wildlife.

Water

Water can be the most important factor influencing the presence of some wildlife species. In Tennessee, we are fortunate that it is not often in short supply. Ponds, creeks, and rivers are present or in relative close proximity to most properties in Tennessee. Wetlands also occur in many low-lying areas. The value of these areas cannot be overstated, as these wetlands provide habitat for many wildlife species, plus they help conserve soil by preventing erosion. Wetlands also improve water quality by slowing runoff, reducing sedimentation, and allowing infiltration, replenishing water into our soils.
Water can be provided around your home in several ways. Many small wildlife species frequently use water features, such as water gardens or bird baths. A bird bath may be any type of receptacle that is the right depth and has the slope birds prefer when entering the water. A larger water feature will serve more species, such as frogs and toads and even dragonflies. These features add much benefit to the landscape, as the creatures they serve are efficient predators on insects.
If you are interested in various amphibians, consider how these animals typically prefer shallow wetland areas with emergent plants that enable them to hide, feed, and breed. Other wildlife, such as dragonflies, like to perch on the tips of taller marshy plant species to sun and watch for prey and potential mates. Sadly, a fear of snakes often prevents people from creating such areas, and these beneficial wetland areas are eliminated. It also is important to understand that adding fish to a small backyard pond may not be a good idea, as some fish are predators to young amphibians.
Designers who incorporate water features into the landscape should keep in mind that small animals may drown if they are unable to climb out. This problem can be prevented either by providing a gentle slope or by adding a piece of structure, such as a stone or piece of driftwood.

Attracting Various Species

Bird Feeders

Seed is the most commonly used food to attract birds (see Table 1). Wild bird seed usually is a mixture of grain sorghum, safflower, millet, cracked corn, rape seed, and sunflower. These mixes can be wasteful because birds usually sort through it for their favorites and discard the unwanted types. That discarded seed can attracts rodents, which may become problematic. Many backyard birders provide only black-oil sunflower seed, which is relished by many of the most popular seed-eating birds. Eliminating cracked corn as a food source may discourage flocks of blackbirds that may otherwise descend on feeders and empty them in short order.
Poorly designed feeders waste seed. Some have feeding ports set high above the bottom of the feeder. Birds cannot access seed below the ports, so a couple of inches of seed remain uneaten and eventually encourage mold that is harmful to birds. Better feeders allow birds to eat seed that sifts out at the very bottom, eliminating this problem.
Water causes seed to swell, mold, or even germinate in warm weather, so a feeders with an adequate roof can help. However, even a good roof will not keep blowing rain or snow from wetting seed, so cleaning occasionally is necessary. Any feeder should be easy to take apart for cleaning, and some need cleaning more than others. One example of a feeder design that allows birds to fully access seed with little waste is a large, round cylinder made of mesh material similar to hardware cloth. The birds perch on the metal tray at the bottom, or on the mesh itself, and extract the seeds from the mesh openings. A slightly raised cone in the center of the bottom tray slides the seed toward the edges so birds can get all the seed.
Many birds like hanging feeders with ports or mesh, whereas some prefer an open platform strewn with seed. Others, such as mourning doves and eastern towhees, prefer seed scattered on the ground. Be sure to do this in an open area that will give them plenty of space to spot predators and allow escape.
Many birds feed avidly on suet. It is a favorite of woodpeckers and other birds that are primarily insectivores during warm seasons. Many offerings of suet mixed with other ingredients, such as raisins or peanuts, can be found at retail outlets that carry wild bird products, or an online search will provide you information on making suet at home. A feeder made of wire mesh that clamps securely over the suet cake works well.
Peanut butter is relished by some birds and can be offered by spreading some on tree trunks, limbs, or fence posts. You also may find peanut butter feeders that may be made as simply as drilling large holes in chunks of a limb that then can be suspended.
If squirrels are a problem at bird feeders, one solution can be to provide them with a food source of their own. Unshelled corn (corn that is left on the cob) skewered on a long nail driven into a tree or post sometimes will keep their attention away from the bird feeder. If not, “squirrel-proof” feeders are available commercially, and many people develop imaginative methods to “squirrel-proof” their feeders. (Hint: metal flashing or vinyl siding wrapped around the feeder post usually works.) It is a challenge to match wits with squirrels; they are quite ingenious at getting to feeders.

Hummingbirds

Many people love hummingbirds. The ruby-throated hummingbird is most always the species seen on this side of the Mississippi River. They are neotropical migrants, meaning they overwinter in tropical climes, such as Mexico or Central or South America. Some enthusiasts keep track of the average date of the first hummer to arrive each spring on their way north for the breeding season, whereas other hummingbird devotees rely on signs provided by nature. The red blooms on the native buckeye, Aesculus pavia, provide a good clue each year that it is time to hang feeders. In addition, several websites track the migration.
To help attract hummingbirds around the home, it is desirable to grow lots of flowers that attract not only hummingbirds but also the small insects they need, especially for the mother hummer feeding her young. Some good choices are early bloomers such as the native coral honeysuckle, columbines, and red buckeye. Other important additions include late-blooming perennials, such as cardinal flower and late- or long-blooming salvias. Salvia greggii is particularly good as a tough, shrubby salvia native to Texas that starts flowering early, slows a bit in the heat of summer, and then puts on a fabulous fall show. Rotting fruit or banana peels can be set out to attract small flies for the purpose of attracting small insects to meet the hummingbirds’ protein needs.
Nectar sources for hummingbirds can be augmented by feeders. There are some pretty hummingbird feeders, but serious hummingbird enthusiasts want the most functional. Keeping them clean of mold is a primary issue. Feeders with small openings and hard-to-reach crevices can be frustrating or impossible to keep scrubbed even with bottle brushes designed for such crannies.
Models are available with a wide mouth that are easy to clean, both in the major container and in the reservoir that serves the sipping ports. The number of sipping ports can be important for those feeders that attract a large number of hummers, and hummingbirds prefer those that provide perches for them as they feed. A hummingbird’s metabolism is very high, requiring hummingbirds to consume lots of calories per hour to maintain life. The ability to perch while it feeds helps reduce the amount of calories expended for calories gained.
The recipe for hummingbird feeder solutions most often seen is a 4-to-1 ratio of water to sugar by volume. This recommendation has served well, and many hummingbird experts insist on it being the safest. However, published information in research journals reveals that many of the flowers preferred by hummingbirds have much higher concentrations of sugar. For example, jewelweed, Impatiens capensis, can have a sugar solution as high as 43 percent, and many salvias have concentrations in the 30 percent range. Some studies have demonstrated hummingbirds prefer a stronger solution and show no ill effects from consuming it.
One study indicated hummingbirds consume about the same number of calories per hour regardless of the solution strength, so there is no danger of them “getting fat” or being harmed in any way. In other words, if a hummingbird can satisfy its caloric needs with fewer visits to the feeder, it is free to do more insect hunting. A little known fact about hummingbirds is that they are primarily insectivores, and their insect feeding is fueled by sugars gleaned from flowers and sugar solutions.
If tap water is suitable for humans to drink, it is good enough for hummingbirds. Pure cane sugar should be used to make the sugar solution. There is no need to purchase expensive “hummingbird mixes” or to use red coloring for the solution. Honey or any type of artificial sweetener should never be used. It is not necessary to sterilize the solution by boiling it. As soon as the first bird sticks its tongue into the solution, bacteria has been introduced. It is important to replace the solution with fresh before it becomes cloudy or smells of fermentation. Keeping fresh solution may require changing it every couple of days or every several days. Warmer temperatures cause the solution to go foul more quickly.
Bees and wasps can be a problem on hummingbird feeders, and many of the better feeders take this problem into account. It is easily solved because the hummingbird’s tongue can reach much further than the proboscis of bees or wasps. Some feeders have bee guards that deny close access to the ports, and others are made so that the level of the fluid in the reservoir is too low for bees and wasps to reach, but is still easily accessed by hummingbirds.
Ants are another problem easily solved by buying or making a “moat” and hanging it between the feeder and its hook. This chamber, when filled with water or oil, prevents ants from reaching the port. No sort of sticky product should be applied to the hanger to tangle the ants because the hummingbirds can come into contact with it, getting stuck and impairing their mobility and perhaps leading to other physical damage internally when they try to preen it from their feathers. However, a sticky product can be used on an “upside-down” moat that is too small to admit the hummingbird.
Try to avoid using insecticides near the feeder. However, if the ant trail is followed to the colony home, it is possible to apply an ant bait there, providing targeted control of the ants without affecting the hummers.

Tips for Backyard Feeders

Place feeders where cats cannot ambush feeding birds
Consider that bird feeders may attract rodents; placing feeders near homes may lead to problems
Consider feeding through winter without interruption
Use a variety of feeders with a variety of foods to attract a variety of species
Clean feeders with bleach water once a month
Use good food – avoid seed that appears moldy or smells musty; also discard musty or moldy seed and germinating seed.

Food Preferences of Birds Common to Backyard Feeders in Tennessee

Mourning Dove
- Black oil-type sunflower seeds, white proso millet
Red-bellied Woodpecker
- Black oil-type sunflower seeds, cracked nuts, shelled and broken peanuts, bread crumbs, suet
Carolina chickadee
- Black oil-type sunflower seeds, cracked nuts, shelled and broken peanuts, bread crumbs, suet
Tufted titmouse
- Black oil-type sunflower seeds, cracked nuts, shelled and broken peanuts, bread crumbs, suet
Red-breasted nuthatch
- Black oil-type sunflower seeds, cracked nuts, shelled and broken peanuts, bread crumbs, suet
White-breasted nuthatch
- Black oil-type sunflower seeds, cracked nuts, shelled and broken peanuts, bread crumbs, suet
Blue jay
- Sunflower seeds (all types), peanuts, cracked nuts and corn, suet
Northern Mockingbird
- Cut apples, oranges, raisins, bread crumbs, suet
Brown thrasher
- Cut apples, oranges, raisins, bread crumbs, suet
American robin
- Cut apples, oranges, raisins, bread crumbs, suet
Gray catbird
- Cut apples, oranges, raisins, bread crumbs, suet
Northern cardinal
- Sunflower seeds (all types), cracked corn, shelled and broken peanuts, suet
Eastern towhee
- White proso millet, sunflower seeds (all types), cracked corn, and shelled and broken peanuts
Evening grosbeak
- Sunflower seeds (all types), cracked corn, shelled and broken peanuts
American Goldfinch
- Niger thistle, hulled sunflower seeds, black oil-type sunflower seeds
House finch
- Black oil-type sunflower seeds, niger thistle
Purple finch
- Sunflower seeds (all types)
White-throated sparrow
- White proso millet, black oil-type sunflower seeds, wheat, bread crumbs
Dark-eyed junco
- White proso millet, black oil-type sunflower seeds, wheat, bread crumbs
Common grackle
- Hulled sunflower seeds (all types)

Nesting Needs for Birds

It is natural to think of trees when providing nesting sites for birds, but numerous species do not prefer the lofty treetops. Many build nests in dense shrubs or in the lower branches of small trees and saplings. Some ground-nesting birds prefer grassy meadows, whereas others construct nests in the litter under shrubs or in thickets. There also are birds that use mud to construct nests on shelves, such as eastern phoebe, American robin, and barn swallow.
Of course, many birds nest only in tree cavities. If cavities are not available, many cavity-nesting birds will nest in birdhouses. Garden shops provide a wide variety of whimsical bird house offerings, but many are purely ornamental and not attractive to some nesting birds. However, some birds, such Carolina wrens, are notorious for nesting in most any cavity, whether an old boot, basket, or tool box.
Some cavity-nesting birds have specific demands for their nest boxes. Many websites provide the detailed information needed to accommodate these birds. Of these, the most popular is the eastern bluebird, which has strict preferences for the size and depth of box, and especially for diameter of the entry hole.
The specifications for bluebird houses can be found at many websites, but the North American Bluebird Society and the Sialis sites are highly recommended. Many different styles and materials will work, but they should all have the following attributes for best success: sturdiness, correct size of entrance and depth, weather resistance, good drainage, and ease of opening for monitoring.

Butterfly Gardening

Butterflies are the poster child for pollinator gardening, equaled perhaps by the honeybee. Although the beauty of these winged wonders is the biggest attraction, it is gratifying to know that by providing a good site for butterflies to feed and produce progeny, you also are benefitting a multitude of humbler and homelier pollinating insects.
Basic needs are desirable plants that provide flower nectar for adult butterflies along with plants that provide foliage for their caterpillars, often called host plants. Host plants can be very specific to a butterfly species, whereas nectar plants can provide for a broad spectrum of species. Site also is important. A good site provides cover, water, and plenty of sun. It also is good to have some bare soil where butterflies can extract needed minerals, especially when it is wet. These areas are sometimes called puddling stations.
Providing flowers from very early spring to late fall lays the groundwork for a successful butterfly garden. Many perennials can fulfill these roles, and lists of flowers with their season of bloom can be found. Some perennials have brief bloom seasons, whereas a few provide flowers over a period of several months. Many annuals provide flowers throughout the growing season. Also of value are long-blooming perennial plants, such as blanket flower, blue anise sage, nepeta, Rudbeckia spp., and Echinacea spp. Finches seem to particularly enjoy the seeds of Echinacea after the blooms have faded.
Late-season plants include various asters and goldenrods, particularly beloved by butterflies, bees, and the many beneficial predatory wasps. Honeybees also feed on these flowers avidly, stocking their hives with honey in preparation for winter.
Annuals can provide generously for the butterfly, bee, and hummingbird buffet. A few of special note include cuphea, which seems to flower effortlessly even in the hottest days of summer; pentas, which always seems to be crowned with butterflies; and lantana. A couple varieties of lantana, Miss Huff and Ham’n’Eggs, have proven to be reliable perennials through zone 7.
Annual vines are also of value, including Spanish flag (Mina lobata), Black-eyed Susan vine (Thunbergia alata), and hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus). Moonvine (Ipomoea alba) is magical, opening at dusk with its strong fragrance, attracting huge sphinx moths as large as hummingbirds.
Many shrubs and trees provide nectar for butterflies. Some may be seasonal, whereas others bloom for months, such as Abelia or Buddleia. Shrubs and trees also providing shelter from wind and rain, as well as sunning and roosting sites. Some shrubs and trees also are important host plants for the caterpillars. Although it is not common to consider trees when planning a butterfly garden, they should be considered because a surprising number of butterflies rely on them for food and reproduction. Trees should be located in appropriate spots so they do not shade-out sunny areas of the butterfly garden.
A garden for wildlife need not be purely native, despite claims to contrary. There are many assertions about insects not eating nonnative plants, but facts do not bear out this belief. Consider that many nonnative plants are related to our native plants or are so similar in chemical composition that they serve insects as a food source just as well as the natives. Nonnatives can be assets in the landscape, but beware of and do not plant invasive species that can displace much more valuable native plants and spread into areas where they are not wanted, often way beyond the property boundaries.
Although many web sites offer information on butterfly gardening, a particularly useful one is that of the North American Butterfly Association (NABA). This group also offers butterfly garden certification, which encourages a commitment to conservation. Another benefit of NABA is the service it provides to the sciences through monitoring. Since 1993, the organization has run a butterfly count program through the work of citizen-scientists, who provide actual numbers through annual counts. Over time, the information submitted can provide valuable insights into species fluctuation and results of conservation efforts. Several butterfly counts are conducted in Tennessee, and participating is a wonderful way to learn and contribute. The Tennessee Valley Chapter of the NABA provides a website at
tnvalleynaba.org and offers a newsletter providing more information.

The “Under-recognized” Beneficial Species

Humans tend to think of most insects as “bad” and a handful as “good.” However, consider the statement by famed naturalist E. O. Wilson, who said they are “the little things that run the world.” More than three-fourths of the planet’s flowering plants are dependent on “bugs” for pollination. Sometimes bats or hummingbirds ferry pollen from flower to flower, but the lion’s share of that work is completed by insects that keep the whole system running. Although a great deal of attention is given to food crops that require insect pollination, there is a much larger concern. Consider that plants produce oxygen — a need that cannot be overrated!
Bees are given most of the credit for pollinating food crops and how that role affects food production and cost, but wasps, flies, beetles, ants, and many other insects also are hard at work. Honeybees get lots of press, but before Europeans introduced them to North America, there were many native insects adequately serving as pollinators. Unfortunately, society generally frowns on the presence of these less-popular insects, sometimes called the “forgotten pollinators”.
Unnecessary use of insecticides reduces the numbers of insects for pollination. Wildlife that feed on insects also can be affected, including birds, bats, frogs, toads, skinks, and fence lizards, as well as others farther up the food chain. Consider the cost versus the benefit of the numerous garden citizens when applying insecticides. Extend that thinking, perhaps even to the snakes that eat the voles that eat our plants. There are many organisms that help the garden succeed by their contributions to predator-prey relationships.
Certainly, some insects and invertebrates are undesirable, and ways to control or avoid them are needed. A thoughtful approach is to use the best method that has the least detrimental environmental impact. For example, the use of insect or tick repellent is highly recommended, and pets should be treated for fleas and ticks. Biological insecticides, such as Bacillus thurengiensis (BT) products, can be used in rain barrels to control mosquito larvae. BT or Spinosad can be used on specific plants for specific pests. These are examples of low-impact, very targeted methods of control that help keep us safe or protect our plants without undue harm to the vast army of buzzing, shining, crawling, flying insects that work so hard to keep the planet green. Indeed, there are times to control specific insect populations, but it is wise to consider the larger picture before making a knee-jerk decision to eradicate an insect.

Sampler of Native Plants that Attract Hummingbirds, Bees, and Butterflies

Plant Species	Habit	Bloom Time	Wildlife Benefit
Aster (Aster spp.)	Annual or perennial	Fall	Butterflies, bees
Bee balm and Bergamot (Monarda spp.)	Perennial	Late spring to summer	Butterflies, bees, hummingbirds
Black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia spp.)	Annual or perennial	Summer	Butterflies, bees
Blazingstar (Liatris spp.)	Perennial	Summer to fall	Butterflies, bees, hummingbirds
Cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis)	Perennial	Late summer to fall	Butterflies, bees, hummingbirds
Columbine (Aquilegia canadensis)	Perennial	Spring	Butterflies, bees, hummingbirds
Coneflower (Echinacea spp.)	Perennial	Summer	Butterflies, bees
Evening primrose (Oenothera spp.)	Perennial	Summer	Butterflies, bees, hummingbirds
Goldenrod (Solidago spp.)	Perennial	Late summer to fall	Butterflies, bees
Joe Pye weed (Eutrochium spp.)	Perennial	Summer	Butterflies, bees
Jewelweed (Impatiens capensis)	Annual	Late summer to fall	Butterflies, bees, hummingbirds
Milkweed (Asclepias spp.)	Perennial	Varies by species	Butterflies, bees
Sedges (Carex spp.)	Perennial	Varies by species	Butterflies, bees
Sunflower (Helianthus spp.)	Annual or perennial	Late summer to fall	Butterflies, bees
Tickseed sunflower (Bidens spp.)	Perennial	Late summer to fall	Butterflies, bees
Turk’s cap lily (Lilium superbum)	Perennial	Late summer	Hummingbirds
Violets (Viola spp.)	Perennial		Butterflies, bees

Sampler of Native Trees and Shrubs that Benefit Wildlife and Pollinators

Plant Species	Form	Wildlife Benefit (Cover, Food, or Fruit Type)
American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana)	Deciduous shrub	Drupes
American beech (Fagus grandifolia)	Deciduous tree	Nuts
American holly (Ilex opaca)	Evergreen tree	Winter cover, larval host, berries
Blackberry and raspberry (Rubus spp.)	Deciduous shrub	Aggregates of drupelets
Blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica)	Deciduous tree	Drupes
Blueberry (Vaccinium spp.)	Deciduous shrub	Nectar, larval host, berries
Buckeye (Aesculus spp.)	Deciduous tree/ shrub	Nectar
Buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis)	Deciduous shrub	Seeds, nectar
Cherry and plum (Prunus spp.)	Deciduous tree	Drupes
Chinquapin (Castanea pumila)	Deciduous tree/ shrub	Nuts
Crabapple (Malus spp.)	Deciduous tree	Pomes
Devil’s walking stick (Aralia spinosa)	Deciduous shrub	Drupes
Dogwood (Cornus spp.)	Deciduous tree	Drupes
Elm (Ulmus spp.)	Deciduous tree	Seeds, larval host
Eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana)	Evergreen tree	Winter cover*, larval host
Elderberry (Sambucus canadensis)	Deciduous shrub	Drupes
Hackberry (Celtis spp.)	Deciduous tree	Drupes, larval host
Hawthorn (Crataegus spp.)	Deciduous shrub	Pomes
Hazel-nut (Corylus americana)	Deciduous shrub	Nuts
Hickory (Carya spp.)	Deciduous tree	Nuts, larval host
Honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos)	Deciduous tree	Legumes
Huckleberries (Gaylussacia spp.)	Deciduous shrub	Berries, nectar, larval host
Oak (Quercus spp.)	Deciduous tree	Acorns, larval host
Pawpaw (Asimina triloba)	Deciduous tree	Berries, larval host
Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana)	Deciduous tree	Berries*
Pine (Pinus spp.)	Evergreen tree	Winter cover, seeds
Magnolia (Magnolia spp.)	Evergreen tree	Winter cover, drupes
Maple (Acer spp.)	Deciduous tree	Seeds
Mulberry (Morus spp.)	Deciduous tree	Drupes*
Redbud (Cercis canadensis)	Deciduous tree	Seeds, nectar, larval host
Rhododendron (Rhododendron spp.)	Evergreen shrub	Winter cover, nectar
Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)	Deciduous tree	Berries, larval host
Serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.)	Deciduous tree	Pomes, nectar, larval host
Silverbell (Halesia spp.)	Deciduous tree	Nectar
Spicebush (Lindera benzoin)	Deciduous shrub	Larval host, drupes*
Smooth or winged sumac (Rhus spp.)	Deciduous shrub	Nectar, larval host, drupes*
Strawberry-bush (Euonymus americanus)	Deciduous shrub	Seeds
Sweetshrub (Calycanthus floridus)	Deciduous shrub	Nectar
Viburnum (Viburnum spp.)	Deciduous shrub	Drupes
Wafer ash (Ptelea trifoliata)	Deciduous shrub	Nectar, larval host
Winterberry (Ilex verticillata)	Deciduous shrub	Berries
Witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana)	Deciduous tree	Seeds

*Check with county Extension personnel regarding species vigor in the local area, recommended planting techniques, soil conditions, etc. Genus is provided in ( ). * indicates species that are always or typically dioecious and will need male and female plants to produce fruiting structures for wildlife.

Managing Problem Wildlife around the Home

Wildlife can cause problems around the home. Moles and skunks dig up the yard, voles kill plants, bats get in attics, groundhogs and rabbits eat vegetables out of the garden, deer eat shrubbery and flowers, woodpeckers damage siding, squirrels chew on the deck, raccoons and opossums get under the house, and it seems that hardly anyone likes the company of snakes or lizards. The good news is there is a solution for each of these problems. The bad news is that some of these problems require considerable effort to resolve, and most of them require a fair amount of patience. Controlling or managing nuisance wildlife around the home most often involves removing or preventing access to the food or cover that has attracted the unwanted animal. Making conditions in the area unattractive to the nuisance animal is the best option for control.
The initial step in addressing wildlife damage is perhaps most important — identifying the problem animal and learning something about its ecology and behavior. Once the animal is known and studied, it is easier to understand why it is causing the problem, and then the solution may be a matter of applying common sense. People often are frustrated with their lack of success in managing nuisance wildlife because they are trying to control the wrong species or habit. For example, trapping rabbits is not going to reduce damage to plants when voles or deer are the culprits.
Many different strategies can be employed to manage nuisance wildlife. Before implementing a strategy, it is vitally important to know which technique or practice works for various species and what methods are or are not legal. Several wildlife species are protected under federal or state law. In addition, local ordinances may limit what is allowed in a specific area.
Federal laws prohibit killing migratory birds and destroying their nests or eggs. With few exceptions, US laws also prohibit killing or molesting all threatened or endangered species. A permit is required from the USDA Wildlife Services (USDA-WS) to trap or kill migratory species.
In Tennessee, a permit from the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA) is required for killing big game species, such as white-tailed deer, black bear, or wild turkey outside the designated hunting seasons. Any rodent or furbearer (if not threatened or endangered) or small game species may be trapped or killed without a permit if that animal is destroying or depredating property. Certain animals are not protected in Tennessee and can be trapped or killed at any time without a permit, specifically, house mice, Norway rats, roof (or black) rats, moles, voles, pigeons, house (or English) sparrows, and European starlings.

Common Control Methods

Many strategies are available for managing nuisance wildlife in the lawn, garden, and landscape. It is vitally important to know which technique or practice works for various species and what is legal. Several wildlife species are protected under federal or state law. In addition, local ordinances may limit what is possible in particular areas.
Backyard wildlife problems usually can be handled safely and effectively. Several basic approaches can be used to solve nuisance wildlife problems, including habitat modification, exclusion, chemical repellents, visual repellents, frightening agents, and removal. A combination of techniques is usually more effective than a single technique.

Habitat Modification

Probably the most effective technique in dealing with nuisance wildlife is modifying the area surrounding the home to create less favorable conditions for wildlife. Simple adjustments can make the area less attractive to wildlife and reduce wildlife activity around the home. Food resources, such as dog and cat food, should not be left out where it is available to wildlife. Bird feeders should be moved away from the house to reduce the possibility of attracting rodents (and snakes) into the house. Sources of cover, such as brush piles and woodpiles, near the house could be removed. Weedy patches near the house could be mowed to make the area less attractive to rodents (thus snakes) and skunks. Branches that reach near the house should be cut to reduce the potential for squirrels getting on the roof and in the attic. Lights can be placed in the attic or crawl space temporarily to repel squirrels and other rodents, snakes, and skunks. Heavy duty, galvanized hardware cloth can be buried just under and around flower beds to discourage vole and chipmunk activity. Hedgerows of dense shrubbery planted as a border between the pond/lake and the yard will discourage geese that are molting during summer from walking up into the yard and feeding on the grass. Finally, other than bird feeders, do not feed wildlife!

Exclusion

Blocking entry of an animal can be accomplished in many ways and is successful for several species. Crawl spaces under houses should be closed using plywood, heavy-duty galvanized hardware cloth, or some other sturdy material. Hardware cloth is better than screening because animals can tear through screening relatively easily. Hardware cloth also is effective to block small openings that allow bats, squirrels, and birds into attics and chimneys. Fine-mesh netting also can keep birds out of areas or from depredating grapes, blueberries, or similar crops. Netting draped from the edge of the roof down the side of a wall can keep woodpeckers from pecking the wall.
Fencing works well for repelling animals in some situations. A 2- to 3-foot-high fence of chicken wire or hardware cloth will help keep rabbits and groundhogs out of gardens. An electric fence with two or three strands approximately 4 or 5 inches apart, with the bottom strand about 3 inches above ground, also helps exclude rabbits, groundhogs, and raccoons. To keep dogs out of gardens, a 2-strand electric fence should be used. Strands should be approximately 12 inches apart, and the bottom strand should be 8 inches above ground.
To repel deer, a 3-strand electric fence should be used, with strands approximately 1 foot apart. Aluminum tabs smeared with peanut butter should be placed along the middle strand. Because deer are attracted to peanut butter, when their noses or mouths contact the aluminum tab, they will receive a shock and will learn to avoid the area. A woven wire fence 10 feet high also will exclude deer (8 feet will work, but it is possible for adult deer to jump an 8-foot fence). However, it may be costly to erect such a fence around a relatively large area.

Repellents and Frightening Agents

Chemical repellents generally are classified as taste repellents or area (or smell) repellents. Taste repellents have a bitter or hot taste, which some animals find offensive. Area repellents give off an offensive odor to some animals. Over the long term, chemical repellents are relatively ineffective. Animals learn there is no harm associated with them. If they are hungry enough, it does not matter if the plant tastes bitter or hot. A variety of repellents are available at lawn and garden stores, home centers, nurseries, chemical supply companies, and sometimes directly from the manufacturers.
Success using chemical repellents usually is measured by the amount of damage reduction rather than elimination of the problem. Area repellents may be sprayed directly on the plant, sprayed along a cotton rope strung around the protected area, or sprayed along a braided electric fence. This so-called repellent fence has worked fairly well at reducing deer damage to crop fields and gardens.
When chemical repellents or fences are used to protect flowers, shrubbery, or vegetables, it is important to have an alternative food source nearby to reduce grazing pressure on the protected plants. For example, a clover patch planted adjacent to a vegetable garden that has been protected with a chemical repellent or fence will provide rabbits, groundhogs, and deer something else to eat. Using a combination of techniques is usually more effective than relying on a single technique.
Scarecrows, plastic owls and snakes, “scare eyes” balloons, Mylar tape, flagging, and aluminum pans are examples of visual repellents that may be marginally effective when used alone, but may help when used in combination with other techniques. Visual repellents are most often used around vegetable and flower gardens and on decks with large windows or sliding glass doors where birds “flogging” their reflection is a problem.
Noise-making devices often are used in combination with visual repellents. Fireworks, gun shots, pans banged together, and propane exploders are audible repellents used to keep blackbirds and starlings from roosting in trees and to prevent various birds and deer from damaging crops. Noisemakers and visual repellents should be moved around within the problem area every day or two to help prevent animals from becoming habituated to the scare device.
Another frightening agent that should not be overlooked is a dog. When allowed to stay outdoors or with access to a dog door, a dog is a strong deterrent to deer, raccoons, skunks, armadillos, opossums, and geese causing problems around the house. Even a house dog that has access to a dog door can be encouraged to become a guardian.

Removal

Removal is often the most effective technique for managing nuisance animals. Trapping and shooting are two methods of animal removal; however, planning and knowledge are required to determine if either is suitable. There are many kinds of traps, but live-trapping with a cage-type trap is most common. Live traps typically have a door that falls shut when the animal (which is trying to get to a bait) steps onto a treadle or trigger. For many rodents, snap-traps baited with peanut butter and bird seed is effective. For groundhogs (which are also rodents) and rabbits (which are not rodents), fresh vegetables are effective. For most carnivores and omnivores (such as raccoons, skunks, and cats), sardines or raw chicken scraps are effective.
Once an animal has been trapped, disposal is necessary. Releasing live-trapped animals is illegal without a permit from the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA) and written permission from the property owner where the animal will be released. Therefore, trapping should take place only if a legal transport or a lethal control plan is in place for dealing with trapped animals in a timely manner. Lethal control is strongly recommended for problem raccoons and skunks. These animals are overabundant in many areas and are prone to carry rabies and distemper, which can be very problematic for pets (and humans). To slow the spread of rabies in east Tennessee, the USDA Wildlife Services (USDA-WS) and TWRA do not allow animal damage control operators to release trapped raccoons or skunks; they must be killed. Private landowners are strongly encouraged to do the same. If the animals are released, it simply transfers the problem to someone else Also, keep in mind that deer and geese can be shot only during the designated hunting seasons unless a special permit from TWRA (for deer) or the USDA-WS (for geese) has been issued.

Toxic Baits

Toxic baits are registered for only a few animals such as moles, voles, rats, and mice. However, “poison peanuts” are not effective at reducing mole populations. Moles do not eat peanuts; they eat earthworms and grubs. An insecticide application to reduce the grub population in your yard may be recommended, but it will not rid the area of moles because moles feed on other animals, especially earthworms. Trapping is recommended as the most efficient method with the least damaging impact to non-target species.
Zinc phosphide is a single-dose rodenticide commonly used to control voles and other rodents. It is a restricted-use pesticide and is available as an impregnated bait on oats, corn, wheat, and peanuts. Several anticoagulant baits are also approved for rodent control. If a pesticide is chosen, it should be used only in accordance with its label. Anytime pesticides or other toxic baits are used, avoid any potential for contact with nontarget animals. The presence of household pets and children may well affect the decision whether to use these types of control measures or to select others that pose less risk.

Keys to Controlling Nuisance Wildlife

Correctly identify the offending animal. Several reference books are available to help identify animals, their signs, and the various types of damage they cause. Extension Service, USDA Wildlife Services and state wildlife agency personnel can be valuable resources.

Learn about the animal’s requirements and behavior causing the problem.
Choose the appropriate, effective damage reduction technique(s). Multiple approaches are almost always better than a single technique.
Begin control efforts as soon as the problem starts. If a problem is anticipated, control efforts should begin before the problem starts. Do not wait until an animal has developed a habit.
Be patient and persistent. It may take several days and nights to control the offending animal. In some cases, several animals may be involved.

Considerations for Specific Problem Species

Birds Around the Home

Birds can cause problems around the home by nesting in unwanted areas and by pecking on glass doors and windows. Carolina and house wrens and eastern phoebes commonly nest in garages or boards that provide platforms under porch ledges. Accumulation of nesting material and droppings can be very messy. Spike strips or sticky strips can be placed on ledges, but the birds often nest on top of them. Repeated scare tactics and exclusion from protected areas (such as garages) are most effective, but they require persistence and patience. Placing a protective layer of cardboard or plastic that can be removed once nesting season is over is an option for those homeowners that want to encourage these insect-gleaning birds.
Cardinals, mockingbirds, and a few other species commonly fly into windows or glass doors during spring and summer. Large picture windows and sliding glass doors are attacked most often. These birds establish territories that they defend during the reproductive season, so they will continue to batter these windows each time they see their reflection in the bright, shiny glass, apparently thinking the image is an intruder in their territory. Homeowners may be concerned that the bird will kill itself, or they may become perturbed at the droppings and occasional blood spots on the window. Birds fighting their reflections generally will not hit the window hard enough to cause themselves harm, although they sometimes do.
In fact, birds sometimes fly into large windows with enough force to kill themselves. Covering the glass with cloth on the outside will prevent a bird from seeing its reflection and prevent it from attacking the window. Attaching several strips of masking tape about 2 inches apart may help break up the reflection. Taping a large black silhouette of a hawk to the window may also help. Regardless, if the window is attacked, the problem lasts only a short time during the height of the breeding season.

Woodpeckers

Seven species of woodpeckers are found in Tennessee: the red-bellied woodpecker, red-headed woodpecker, downy woodpecker, hairy woodpecker, pileated woodpecker, northern flicker, and yellow-bellied sapsucker. Typical woodpecker damage occurs on buildings with wooden exteriors where the birds are pecking for insects or creating holes for nesting, usually between February and June, which coincides with their breeding season. Holes are usually created on buildings that are vacant during part of the year, unpainted, and have cedar or redwood siding. If the birds are allowed to make these holes large enough, they may use them for nesting.
Woodpeckers may “drum” on sides of buildings, guttering, and various metal surfaces during early daylight hours, which can be annoying. Sapsuckers may kill limbs or very rarely entire young trees as they bore holes in healthy trees to remove sap and the insects attracted to these wounds. However, sapsucker activity is usually not damaging to large, healthy trees, and several other species of birds and insects benefit from the sap “wells” created by this shy bird. (See the breakout box). If needed, cover the trunk or limb with screen or burlap during the winter to early spring weeks when this behavior is an issue.
Always begin control measures as soon as the problem begins. When wood is involved, always check for insects first because insects attract woodpeckers. If insects are present, treat the wood with an approved chemical. If insects aren’t present, you may deaden the sound of woodpeckers by placing insulation behind the siding boards where damage is occurring. The insulation can be inserted by removing a couple of planks and stuffing insulation behind them. A more permanent solution is to cover the area where the woodpecker is working with 1/4-inch hardware cloth. If none of these techniques work, it may be necessary to kill the bird (usually only one bird is involved). However, woodpeckers are protected by federal law and a permit is required to kill a woodpecker. You can request a permit from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Contact your county wildlife officer for help in obtaining the permit.

A Salute to the Sapsucker

Its name sounds like a cartoon character, but the yellow-bellied sapsucker is quite the engineer. Its mewing call, or its tapping on trees is common in neighborhoods, though this winter resident is shy. The tapping is distinctive. While most woodpeckers rattle off a drumming of predictable rhythm that varies in speed by species, the sapsucker’s pattern is irregular. The first second or two of its tapping may be a rhythmic volley but then it breaks down into bunched, unpredictable patterns, spaced with pauses that cause some people to think of Morse code. It is a quieter tapping, with a casual conversational tone.
Even when they aren’t heard, their calling cards appear in the distinctive patterns of holes left in tree bark. While many woodpeckers tap holes in trees, they are mostly doing so to capture insects, especially beetles and their larvae. The sapsucker also relies on insects for the larger percentage of its diet, but differs in that it feeds extensively on tree sap, as the name suggests. Engineering skills come into play, as drilling for sap takes a particular expertise.
The small bird drills two different types of holes, depending on the season of the year. Winter calls for round holes that reach deeper into the tree to tap the xylem, the tree vessels that carry nutrients and water from roots to branches. This sap is lower in sugars than that found in the shallow phloem just below the bark, which carries sugars manufactured in warm season foliage back down to the roots. The xylem sap tends to have more pressure behind it and flows more freely, so a simple hole in winter is sufficient. As weather warms, and leaves emerge, the sapsucker begins to target the phloem. These holes require a bit more work as this much richer sap tends to flow slowly and can gum up. The sapsucker drills them in vertical rows, making a narrow slit that it continues to widen into a small, shallow rectangle. The tree is continuously attempting to heal and reseal the holes, so the bird must continue to maintain them.
Though these openings can appear quite dramatic, they usually do not cause long term damage to a tree’s overall health, while wildlife benefits are many. At least two dozen other species of bird feed on the sap and on the insects drawn to the sap. Notably, favorites such as the Eastern Bluebird and early migrating hummingbirds make use of the holes as do butterflies, bees, squirrels and bats.
Some may doubt the general statement that holes drilled by sapsuckers do little harm. Examples of harm certainly do occur on occasion, although bird lovers may be quick to forgive those situations when they do inflict real damage on trees or shrubs. The damage itself can be quite interesting since the shallow rectangular holes can be oddly geometric and arranged along the limbs angles. Viburnums are particularly targeted by sapsuckers as are maples and birches, all being species with sweet sap, and often thin barked.
If a plant is particularly targeted by a sapsucker, it can be protected by wrapping the trunk with burlap or window screen. Sapsuckers are winter residents in Tennessee and most leave for northern climes once spring arrives, so a permanent installation of ugly burlap on your prized maple is not in order. They are protected birds and may not be killed.
Male sapsuckers carry their load in parenting. They arrive at the breeding territory well before the females and prepare a cavity, preferring diseased trees softened by fungus. Both bird parents share incubation duties, and once eggs hatch, both busy themselves with feeding the several young. The parents eventually lure the young from the cavity with insects dipped in sap, and demonstrate to the fledglings how to utilize the sap wells. The family remains in a social group near the sap wells for months before leaving to migrate to warmer regions as winter approaches. Migration is commonly done at night and often in flocks.
Research shows that individual birds sometimes return to the same territory and may make use of the same nest cavity. Though the parenting couple do not overwinter together, they will often re-unite at the nesting site and pair up again. Male birds usually stay further north through winter than the females, which prefer warmer temperatures. The sapsucker is sometimes described as the scruffiest and least attractive of the woodpeckers. Maybe so, but its nourishing habits and strong family ties surely nominate it for the MVP of this interesting group of birds.

Bats

Bats occasionally enter houses, sometimes unintentionally, but usually to inhabit attics of homes. Bats enter under eaves, at badly fitting ridge joints, and under shingles, slates, or tiles. If you find a bat in the living area of your home, you can encourage it to leave by opening the doors and windows. Bats usually will find their way out by detecting fresh air movement. If bats are still present at nightfall, turn off the lights to enable them to find open windows or doors; otherwise, they may seek refuge behind drapes, curtains, and wall hangings.
Once bats are removed, all holes allowing their entry (measuring 3/8 inch or larger) should be covered with ¼-inch hardware cloth or sheet metal. Such openings can be found by checking for light entering the attic during the daytime.

Tree Squirrels and Ground Squirrels

The best way to keep tree squirrels (eastern gray squirrels and southern flying squirrels) out of a building or attic is to close off any available openings. To locate entrances, keep an eye on the travel routes of squirrels. Be sure to look for openings at eaves, unscreened attic vents, knotholes, loose flashing around chimneys and vent pipes, and openings around cables. Cover these openings with ¼-inch-mesh hardware cloth or 26 gauge metal.
When local regulations or game laws permit the use of firearms, shooting is an effective method of eliminating troublesome squirrels. If shooting is not permitted, trapping with live cage traps baited with peanut butter is a possibility. However, it is necessary to get permission from the county wildlife officer to release live-trapped animals. Squirrel traps can be purchased at hardware and garden supply stores.
Chipmunks are ground-dwelling squirrels that burrow under woodpiles, stumps, and other such places around the yard, and they may become pests by burrowing under garages, basements, patios, retention walls, and foundations. Chipmunk burrow systems may be extensive, reaching 30 feet or more, including a nesting chamber, food storage chambers, and escape tunnels. Mounds of dirt usually are not evident around burrow entrances because chipmunks transport this material away from entrance holes in their cheek pouches. Chipmunks occasionally find their way into an attic or garage where caches of nuts, fruits, and seeds may be found near their center of activity. Additional problems with chipmunks include feeding on flower bulbs, seedlings, birdseed, and pet food.
Exclusion is the best defense against chipmunks around the home. Heavy-duty hardware cloth with ¼-inch mesh, caulking, mortar, or additional boards should be used to close access areas. Flower gardens can be protected by covering the seedbed with hardware cloth, then placing a layer of soil on top. Strips of woody vegetation and other ground covers that connect shrubbery around your home with an adjacent woodlot provide chipmunks a ready-made travel corridor. Woodpiles and groundcover can hide burrow entrances, making them hard to detect. Bird feeders and pet food should not be placed adjacent to the house if you have a problem with chipmunks or other rodents.
Chipmunks can be trapped with both live traps and snap traps. Baits include peanut butter, nutmeats, sunflower seeds, and fruits. Traps should be prebaited without setting the trap to allow the animals to feed at the trap for 2 to 3 days to condition themselves to take the bait without being spooked. When using a snap trap outside, place the trap under some type of tunnel covering, such as a small box with no ends; just be sure the trap has enough clearance to operate properly. Traps set adjacent to a wall or other structure should be covered by a board leaning against the wall, which allows the chipmunk to feel more secure when feeding and helps protect songbirds from being caught. Although chipmunks are susceptible to rodenticides used to control rats and mice, none are registered for use in controlling chipmunks.

Moles

Moles are small mammals that spend most of their lives in underground burrows, as shown in Figure 1. Three species of moles live in Tennessee. The eastern mole (Scalopus aquaticus) is found throughout the state. The hairy-tailed mole (Parascalops breweri) and the star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) are both found only in extreme eastern Tennessee. Measuring 6 to 8 inches from tip of nose to tip of tail, they are similar in appearance to shrews and mice, and they may occupy the same area. The mole’s most notable feature is the greatly enlarged paddle-like forefeet and prominent toenails that enable the mole to almost literally “swim” through the soil. Their legs are strong, their necks are short, and their heads are elongated. Their ears and eyes are so small that at first glance they appear to be missing. A mole’s fur is soft and velvety. It ranges in color from black to brownish or grayish with silver highlights. When brushed, the fur offers no resistance in either direction; this feature enables moles to travel either backward or forward within their burrows with equal ease.
Moles have high energy requirements and actively feed day and night at all times of the year. Members of the scientific order Insectivora, they feed on earthworms, insects (mature and larvae), snails, spiders, small vertebrates, and small amounts of vegetation. Moles eat amounts equal to 70 to 100 percent of their weight each day and need access to large amounts of food. The tremendous amount of energy expended in plowing through soil requires that a large amount of food be eaten at frequent intervals. A mole in captivity usually starves in a few hours unless supplied with nourishment.
Moles prefer moist, loose, sandy loam soils that are easy to dig. They generally avoid heavy, dry, clay soils. They make extensive runway systems in a surprisingly short time. (They may create as much as 225 feet of tunnel in one day in suitable soil). Moles are the only animals that create surface tunnels. (See Figure 1.) To determine which runways are active, flatten a small section of runway with a foot and check to see if the tunnel is raised again the next morning.
Moles form two types of tunnels: those near the surface and those further underground. Surface tunnels show up as ridges of upheaved soil, created as the animals forage for food. Some of these surface tunnels are used as travel lanes. Others are travelled infrequently, and still others may be abandoned immediately after being dug. Surface tunnels are temporary and most abundant in spring and fall, especially after rains. That is when the mole’s primary food source (earthworms) are near the surface.
In summer and winter, moles burrow deeper. The only evidence of these deep burrows is mounds of soil (molehills) pushed up to the surface as the moles dig. Deeper runs are highways leading from the mole’s home to its hunting ground. These runways are used especially during hot, dry, or very cold weather when earthworms move deeper in the soil. The star-nosed mole does not usually leave surface ridges, but its presence can be detected by mounds of soil pushed up from underground runways.
Before a mole control program is started, it is important to be sure moles are actually responsible for the damage observed. Moles do not eat garden seeds, bulbs, or roots, though they often are blamed for doing so. The culprits responsible for eating seeds and roots are voles, white-footed mice, and common house mice. These seed and plant eaters often live in mole runways, helping themselves to grains, seeds, and tubers. If moles make their runways in garden plant rows, it is because more moisture, insect larvae, and earthworms are in the rows than between the rows. The moles are looking for insects and earthworms to eat.
Moles play an important role in the management of soil and control of lawn-destroying grubs. Only part of their work is visible at the surface. Tunneling and shifting of soil particles permits better aeration of the soil and subsoil. This process carries humus farther down and brings the subsoil nearer the surface, where nutrients may be more available to plant roots.
About the only problem moles ever cause is the nuisance of soil disturbance in a well-kept lawn or garden. If this is a problem, trapping is the most effective control method. Best results are during spring and fall while the soil is moist and temperatures most favorable. Consider the benefits of moles as describe above before deciding if control is necessary.
There are three types of mole traps: choker, pincher, and harpoon. All are set in a similar manner. To determine where to set traps, walk down small sections (the width of a shoe) of several tunnels during the afternoon or early evening, then check the next morning to see which tunnels are raised. These are where traps should be set. Dig out a portion of the tunnel slightly larger than the trap, place the trap so the mole will travel through it, then replace the soil in the hole, packing it firmly where the trigger pan will rest. Do not, however, tear up large or numerous sections of the tunnel, and be careful not to include foreign material, such as leaves, twigs, or rocks, in the fill material. Moles are very suspicious. If a mole detects anything unusual in its tunnel, it will immediately back up and burrow around or under the set trap.
Fortunately, moles are not suspicious of soil blocking the runway and usually will push their way into a soil blockade to reopen the tunnel and continue on their way. Traps are triggered when a mole reopens the tunnel. If the mole is not caught in two days, identify other active runways and move the traps. Similar methods can be used to trap moles in deep tunnels. Probe areas around molehills. When tunnels are located, dig down and set the trap as described above. A continuing trapping effort may be necessary to keep an area mole free.

Voles

Voles, sometimes called meadow mice or field mice, are small rodents with stocky bodies, short legs, and short tails. Voles common to Tennessee include the pine vole (Microtus pinetorum), meadow vole (M. pennsylvanicus), and prairie vole (M. ochrogaster). Voles are active year-round (they do not hibernate) and by both day and night. Activity of meadow and prairie voles is evident from a network of ground-surface runways with numerous burrow openings. Pine voles typically do not use surface runways but create an extensive system of underground tunnels. Small holes leading to a network of underground burrows indicate the presence of pine voles.
Fresh shoots of grasses and forbs growing in or near runway systems and burrow openings make up most of the voles’ diet during the growing season. During the dormant season, voles feed more intensively on tubers, bulbs, bark, rhizomes, and seed. These feeding habits can cause extensive damage to lawns, flower gardens, orchards, and vegetable gardens.
Vole damage can be controlled by killing the animals using one of two common methods. Where damage is severe and widespread, using a zinc phosphide impregnated bait is most practical. If a toxic bait is used, steps should be taken to reduce danger to nontarget animals. Using a funnel to place the bait into the tunnel system through the burrow openings is one method. Another is to use bait stations made of waterproof paper tubes 5 inches long and 1½ inches wide, with bait blocks glued inside. Consult a local Tennessee Extension agent for assistance.
For a small-scale problem, regular mouse (snap-type) traps baited with peanut butter and oatmeal may be used. Voles are secretive and come out of the ground infrequently, usually only at night. Where they exit, there is approximately a 1-inch-diameter exit hole. A trap should be placed next to each hole and covered with a pan large enough not to interfere with the trap’s snapping action. Other options include protecting individual plants by growing them in pots or using a wire mesh to exclude voles.
To make an area unattractive to voles, reduce or remove overhead cover, such as grass, leaves, and mulch, and mow close to the ground. Overhead cover allows for establishment of surface runways and provides voles protection from predators (foxes, skunks, hawks, and owls). Removing mulch from a 3-foot radius around vulnerable plants will make plants less susceptible to vole damage. Individual tree seedlings can be protected with hardware cloth. The mesh should be ¼-inch or smaller and buried 6 inches deep to prevent voles from crawling through or digging under it. Be sure to expand the hardware cloth as the tree or shrub grows so that it will not girdle the trunk. Voles are prolific and will readily move into vacant burrow systems. Therefore, monitoring sites left vacant after control measures have been applied is essential.

Rats and Mice

Successful rat and mouse control involves three steps:

killing rats and mice that already are present;
covering holes in the house or foundation where they get in using ¼ -inch hardware cloth, sheet metal, or mortar; and
removing conditions that initially attracted the pests.

The most important step is to destroy hiding places and eliminate food and water. Rats like to find shelter in refuse and lumber piles, burrow under floors, and nest inside walls and attics.
Rats get food from garbage cans, feed bins, granaries, corn cribs, and other food storage facilities that are not rodent-proof. They also commonly feed on dog and cat food left after the pet has finished eating. Rats get water from streams, ponds, stock watering tanks, ditches, and even puddles of surface water around homesteads or farmsteads.
Anything that can be done to create a less favorable environment for rats and mice will aid in their control. For example, if food, shelter, and water are all available in one building, rats are attracted more than if they must travel 100 yards from their shelter to find food and another 100 yards to get water.
For rat and mouse prevention, protect with 1/4-inch mesh hardware cloth or sheet metal. Store food in metal containers or in some other way that makes it inaccessible. If feasible, remove the water source.
Rats and mice can be killed with snap traps or poisons. Glue boards are also effective for mice. Be aware that glue boards are indiscriminate, and nontarget creatures may be trapped on them as well. Trapped nontarget animals can be very difficult to free. Traps should be placed along walls in the area of rodent activity. They may be placed perpendicular to the wall with the trigger end next to the wall or in pairs parallel to the wall with the triggers facing outward. Peanut butter mixed with bird seed or oatmeal are effective as bait. Creating “funnels” with boards or other material can help steer the rodents to travel across glue boards or into traps.
Poisons are readily available and can be used safely and effectively if directions are followed. Basically two types of rat and mouse poisons are available. One type kills the animal after one dose. The second type must be eaten several times to be effective. This second type, called an anticoagulant, has several advantages over the single-dose type. With some of the single-dose poisons, rats and mice are able to detect the poison before they eat enough to kill them, and they then become bait-shy. Because anticoagulants are slow acting, the pests do not associate the poisoned food with becoming sick. Another problem with single-dose poisons is the danger to pets and children. Anticoagulants must be eaten several times to kill rats and mice. An occasional dose will not kill, so it is safer around pets and children.

Skunks

Concerns about skunks mainly involve them digging in yards for grubs and feeding in trash or other refuse in residential areas. They can also damage some garden crops, such as sweet corn. Removing sources of food and preventing access in areas where they are not wanted are important control tactics. Skunks can be kept from denning under buildings by sealing all foundation openings. Openings can be covered with boards, wire mesh, sheet metal, or concrete. Digging can be prevented by burying hardware cloth vertically 1½ to 2 feet deep around the foundation.
To remove skunks from under buildings:

seal all possible entrances except one — the main one;
sprinkle a layer of flour 2 feet in diameter on the ground in front of the opening;
place a light under the building; skunks don’t like bright light;
after dark, check for tracks;
when tracks indicate that the skunk has left, close the last entrance. Burrows should be sealed before May to prevent trapping young skunks in the den.

Skunks may be trapped in live box traps by baiting the traps with sardines or cat food. However, keep in mind that there must be a legal plan for transporting or killing the animal once it has been trapped.

Opossums

Opossums seek shelter in other animal’s burrows, brushpiles, or even spaces in buildings, such as attics or garages. Opossums generally feed on dead animals and insects, but they also disturb compost, garbage, or pet foods.
Exclusion through fencing and by tightly securing garbage cans or pet food containers is the best way to avoid problems. Live traps are effective for opossums, and baiting with fruit can reduce the chance of catching cats and skunks. However, a plan must be in place for lethal control or transport. Live-trapped opossums are easily dispatched with a pellet gun or .22 rimfire rifle while in the trap.

Raccoons

Raccoons are omnivores that eat a wide range of plant and animal materials, which contributes to their nuisance potential as they can kill poultry as well as cause serious damage to gardens (especially sweet corn and watermelons). In addition, raccoons can cause problems around residences when they forage in garbage or pet food storage areas and when they get into crawl spaces or garages.
Raccoons can be excluded from gardens using a two-strand electric fence with one strand 5 inches above ground and the other 10 inches above ground. Garbage and pet food must be kept in containers that are tough with tight-fitting, secure lids. Several types of traps can be used to trap raccoons. Cage-type live traps and body-gripping kill traps are effective. If live traps are used, you must have a plan to dispose of the animal. It is illegal to transport and release a live raccoon. Live-trapped raccoons can be dispatched in traps easily with a pellet gun or .22 rimfire rifle.

Armadillos

Armadillos are common in many areas of southern and western Tennessee, and the distribution of armadillos is spreading northward and eastward. Armadillos prefer areas with loose soil for borrows. Rocky areas and cracks and crevices may also be used. Their primary food source is insects, both mature and immature. However, armadillos may eat plants, fruits, vegetables, small amphibians, and reptiles.
Most of the damage caused by armadillos results from rooting in gardens, landscape beds, and turfgrass areas. They dig small holes while searching for food and may burrow under structures. Armadillos can be caught in cage-type live traps by placing the traps in their runways — for example, alongside buildings, adjacent to the wall. Do not use bait. Simply set the trap flat on the ground and make sure it is secure. Placing “wings” on the sides of the trap to help guide the animal into the trap can increase trapping success. Trapped armadillos should be dispatched with a pellet gun or .22 rimfire rifle. It is illegal to transport and release a live armadillo without a permit.

Groundhogs

Groundhogs, also known as woodchucks, construct burrows in open areas (such as old fields, pasture, or hay fields) or wooded areas. Burrow entrances are 10 to 12 inches in diameter. They may also burrow under buildings. Groundhogs are herbivores and can eat a variety of forbs and grasses. Their burrow entrances may damage lawn equipment or be stepped in by people or pets, causing injury.
Groundhogs can be excluded from gardens by fencing 3 feet high with a buried portion. Electric wires a few inches off the ground can be added to reduce climbing. Electric fences with strands at 5-inch intervals also can be effective for excluding groundhogs as well as rabbits and other midsized mammals. Groundhogs can be trapped with several different trap designs. Live trapping can be difficult, especially if food resources are abundant. Conibear® (body-gripping) traps are successful when set properly near the burrow entrance with objects (such as logs, rocks, or boards) guiding the animal into the trap.

Snakes

A common complaint regarding wildlife around the house is the presence of snakes. Many people are afraid of snakes and believe all snakes are bad and “poisonous.” (Technically, poisonous means that injury is caused by consumption (eating) of the animal. Venomous means that the animal delivers venom to its victim through a bite or sting.)The reason most people are afraid of snakes is that they do not know enough about snakes, how to identify them, and how to distinguish venomous snakes from nonvenomous snakes.
In actuality, snakes are quite beneficial because they help control rodent populations. Four species of venomous snakes occur in Tennessee: the copperhead (“highland moccasin”), cottonmouth (“water moccasin”), timber rattlesnake, and pygmy rattlesnake. These snakes are pit vipers and can be differentiated from nonvenomous snakes by three primary methods (see Figures 2 and 3):

All pit vipers have pits (heat sensors used for detecting warm-blooded prey in low-light conditions) located between the eye and the nostril
They also have elliptical pupils (similar to cats)
They have undivided scales on the underside of the tail including the scale covering the anus (anal plate). (NOTE: The scales on the underside of the very tip of the tail of pit vipers may be divided).

Nonvenomous snakes in Tennessee do not have pits, their pupils are round, and all scales on the underside of the tail are divided in two. You cannot determine if a snake is venomous by the shape of its head.
The primary nonvenomous snakes found around homes in Tennessee include the scarlet kingsnake, or milksnake, rat snake, common kingsnake, corn snake, eastern garter snake, eastern hognose snake, and northern watersnake. (See photo on page 16-34.) If you are not familiar with these snakes, go to the website of the Tennessee Herpetological Society, http://tennsnakes.org, and learn to identify them. They are harmless to humans and very beneficial around the home site.
If snakes are found frequently near the house, it is probably because there is an abundance of rodents in the area. All snakes are predators and, depending upon the species of snake, eat many different kinds of food—from rodents to insects, birds and eggs, worms, fish, and frogs. Snakes typically are found in areas that provide shelter for rodents, such as wood piles, brush piles, and rock piles, overgrown fields, and old sheds and barns (especially those where feed is stored). The best way to reduce snake populations is to remove or clean up those areas that are attractive to rodents. Vegetation should be mowed closely and all brush and rock piles near a house or other building should be removed to make the area less attractive to rodents and snakes.
Many people kill snakes as soon as they are encountered. Snakes are protected wildlife, and indiscriminate killing is illegal. However, if a venomous snake poses a genuine threat, it is legal to kill the snake. If the snake does not pose an immediate threat, you may contact a county wildlife officer with the TWRA and have the snake removed.
Glue boards are effective for trapping and removing small- to medium-sized snakes. Vegetable oil is used to dissolve the glue and release the snake unharmed once it has been relocated. Snake repellents are not effective. Exclusion is the most important step in avoiding problems with snakes in homes or other buildings. All openings into buildings ¼ inch or larger should be sealed by some means, such as with boards, mortar, steel wool, sheet metal, or hardware cloth.

Lizards

People frequently are concerned with lizards around their house and want to know how to control them. Nine species of lizards live in Tennessee, and all are harmless; none are venomous. The most common lizards found around homes in the state are the fence lizard, the common five-lined skink, and the broad-headed skink.
The fence lizard is scaly gray with a rough appearance, and the five-lined skink has five light stripes on a dark background. Juvenile five-lined skinks have a blue tail that turns to brownish-gray as they become adults. The older males may lose their stripes and have a coppery-red colored head. Broad-headed skinks are grayish-brown to olive with males often having an orange-red head. Broad-headed skinks are the largest lizards in Tennessee (ranging from 6 to 12 inches long). Lizards feed on invertebrates, especially bugs, beetles, crickets, roaches, ants, wasps, bees, spiders, earthworms, and snails, and they are preyed upon by cats, foxes, skunks, raccoons, hawks, owls, snakes, and other lizards.
Even though the lizards native to Tennessee are harmless and beneficial, many people still want to remove them. Lizards are easily controlled and removed with glue boards. As in controlling snakes, the glue boards should be placed against walls and other structures where lizards commonly travel. Lizards can be safely released from glue boards by pouring vegetable oil over the animal. Lizards are protected in Tennessee, and indiscriminate killing is illegal. Permission from your county wildlife officer and a permit from the TWRA are necessary to keep one in captivity.
See the additional resources available online for links and other resources providing more detail on control of many of the animals discussed above.

Summary

Knowledge and perspective are critical when considering wildlife around your home. It is possible to have wildlife around the home, enjoy their presence, and at the same time control the activity and presence of unwanted wildlife. The knowledge necessary for this balance includes some understanding of the biology and requirements of the wildlife species that occur around your home. This chapter has provided an overview of some of the most common wildlife species that occur around homes in Tennessee along with techniques to attract various species and control others. The best application of control methods requires balancing the needs of yourself and other residents as well as the wildlife in the area. For homeowners and gardeners seeking to create attractive wildlife habitat and solve wildlife issues, this information and supplemental resources as well as Extension and TWRA professionals can help in managing wildlife to create an enjoyable and sustainable residential area.